Life, Death and Medical Critical Thinking Essay Samples

Life, Death and Medical Critical Thinking Essay Samples How to Get Started with Medical Critical Thinking Essay Samples? Creativity Critical thinking Critical analysis was defined as the procedure for carrying out objective analysis so as to think of judgement. Writing Peak was among the pioneers in the area of academic writing assistance. Thousand so new methods for creativity have been discovered along with the conventional ways. Creativity Creativity was defined as the practice of doing things by employing new approaches like invention and innovation. Feeling you're correcting negative features of self will enable you to restrict yourself and to truly feel disempowered. In spite of popular belief by a substantial part of students, critical essay writing isn't about criticizing or focusing on the negative component of analysis. You will write a better essay and cannot experience stress if you commence writing earlier than the previous night. Although, you'll be expressin g your opinions, make sure you'll be fair and well informed. What the thinker is trying to figure out. Let's take a good look at how deductive reasoning is utilized in the practice of planning and writing an essay. Critical reasoning is an excellent synonym since it implies careful, deliberate thought. You might write a good essay with respect to content, but in case you have grammar mistakes or your answers aren't relating to the questions, say farewell to your good grade. Describe why it's important to consider critically and creatively in similar scenarios. You have to reveal your critical thinking abilities and make judgments about the subject as you analyze a post, so you may produce clear opinion and conclusions. It is preferable to correctly utilize words that you know, than abuse words which you do not know, in an effort to sound smarter. To find out more about what things to anticipate from the study of medicine, have a look at our Study Medicine in america section. Then you'll have your map for writing and can begin with the initial portion of your essay. An essential essay is an analysis of any bit of text. A comparative essay is among the few requirements for students to finish a training course. Also, you ought to be sure about your sources. Our typical essay examples are free while our custom essays can be obtained at reasonable rates. The above is of fantastic significance, especially to students who think that critical essays should concentrate on the negative facets of a subject. When you're writing an essay for the very first time, you will need to find some examples to comprehend the method by which the essay should examine the finished form. After that, describe how are you going to deal with the subject of your paper. Ways to get Started The very first step towards writing a high quality research paper is to organize what's to be written. The more information you've got on your paper, the ideal quality you'll be able to develop while writing. Your paper will begin with the topic. Analytical Part of critical thinking is the capability to carefully examine something, whether it's an issue, a set of information, or a text. Our intent is to deliver a professional, caring service which focuses on serving patients with empathy and an abundance of knowledge, employing the most current in dental technology. Specific definitions vary and all of them include a problem solving procedure that puts identifying people's needs first utilizing an assortment of tools to achieve effects. You can get the crucial knowledge in numerous ways. What You Need to Do About Medical Critical Thinking Essay Samples Critical thinking is oft en utilized in nursing. You might also have to participate in critical thinking with a group. So, whether or not you're a public health nurse or a nurse practitioner, you must always bear in mind the value of critical thinking in the nursing field. Organizing thoughts can take some time, but should you already have a great deal of things to write, then it would be better to write all of them down and arrange them later on in the last draft.

Marketing strategy assignment free essay sample

Introduction to the Assignment: Please read all instructions and information carefully. You are required to submit your work under the University Infringement of Assessment Regulations. Your assignment must be submitted to your Study Centre in hard copy with an accurately and clearly completed Assignment Cover Sheet, and an electronic copy on CD in an envelope [hole punched or safely secured into your plastic file or assignment wallet]. Please do not include a plastic CD case/box and remember to write your student code and assignment code clearly onto the disc and envelope. You will need to achieve an overall mark of 40% in order to successfully complete this module. Sudipta Das Module Leader MKT 306 2|Page Assignment: Mode of Assessment: Individual Report Weighting: 100% Module Assessor: Sudipta Das Issue Date: w/c 11th February 2014 Submission Date: 7th April 2014 Word Count: 3500 words (+/- 10%) Assignment Brief: The task is divided into two parts (Part 1 Part 2) and candidates are expected to address both. Your task is to identify a Branded Mobile Phone Network provider**; and then analyse, evaluate and prepare an individual report (3500 words +/- 10%) addressing the following issues†¦ 3|Page ? Part 1: ? Using appropriate sources, identify their existing marketing strategy and value creation process [Weightage 30%] ? Research, analyse and evaluate the key strengths and weaknesses of their existing marketing strategy [Weightage 30%] ? Part 2: ? Using appropriate theories (and real-life/academic case studies) suggest alternative strategic approach for increasing their market share, profitability, and long term value creation [Weightage 40%] Candidates are encouraged to evaluate, analyse, and recommend marketing strategies for their chosen company within a specific context of their choice (i. e. UK, Germany, Malaysia, Trinidad etc. ). For the purpose of this assessment students need to focus on marketing strategies been used mainly at the B2C level. Your arguments, findings and recommendations should be supported by theories, facts and figures published within academic books, journal articles, recognised business magazines and market intelligence reports. ** Your chosen mobile phone network provider should be branded, nationally recognised (at least), and it MUST have a website. Example: Vodafone, O2, Three, EE, Virgin etc. N. B. Please note the maximum word count excludes Appendix and References. 4|Page Submission Policies: 1. You are required to submit your work within the bounds of the University Infringement of Assessment Regulations. 2. Your assignment must be submitted to your Study Centre in hard copy with an accurately and clearly completed Assignment Cover Sheet and an electronic copy on CD put into an envelope, hole punched or safely secured into your plastic file or assignment wallet. 3. Please do not include the plastic CD case/box and remember to write your student code and assignment code clearly onto the disc and envelope. 4. All works submitted MUST be original. If under any circumstances a student is found to be violating any of the Academic Integrity rules, the university deserves the right to take legal and disciplinary actions against the individual. 5|Page Assignment Structure: This is an individual assignment as a single report in two parts. Candidates are encouraged to be creative with their analysis and recommendations by using theories covered in the class. The following structure is for illustration purpose only, candidates are highly encouraged to design their own report structure answering the questions given in PART 1 2. ? Title page ? Executive Summary ? Table of contents ? Introduction ? Methodology ? Situational Analysis – current strategies ? Segmentation Targeting Positioning (STP) ? Differential advantages/weaknesses (USP) (SWOT) (PESTLE) ? Recommended objectives and goals (SMART) ? Recommended Marketing Strategies and Programmes ? Conclusion ? Bibliography (with references) ? An electronic copy on CD ? A receipt from TurnItIn © Please remember that this is only a rough guideline and candidates are encouraged to structure their report according to their preference. 6|Page Detailed Explanation of Individual Sections: You’re aiming for a 3500 word report following the given structure†¦ Title: In a short report this may simply be the front cover. In a long one it could also include Terms of Reference, Table of Contents and so on. Executive Summary: Give a clear and very concise account of the main points, main conclusions and main recommendations. Keep it very short, about a page or a few % of the total length. Some people, especially senior managers, may not read anything else so write as if it were a short stand-alone document. It isn’t but for some people it might as well be. Keep it brief and free from jargon so that anyone can understand it and get the main points. WRITE IT LAST, but do not copy and paste from the report itself; that rarely works well. Introduction: This is the first part of the report proper. Use it to paint the background to ‘the problem’ and to show the reader why the report is important to them. Give your terms of reference (if not in the Title Section) and explain how the details that follow are arranged. Write it in plain English. Current Situation: This is where you report the facts as they are now. It will probably have several sections or sub-sections each with its own subtitle. It is unique to your report and will describe what you discovered about ‘the problem’. Take care to answer the exact question which has been set – if you write about retail outlets when the question is about a specific brand you will lose valuable marks and possibly fail. If in any doubt ask your tutor! These sections are most likely to be read by experts so you can use some appropriate jargon but explain it as you introduce it. You are supposed to be demonstrating your understanding of the topic so this is a great opportunity to arrange the information logically, putting things in order of priority most important first. In fact, follow that advice in every section of your report. You may choose to include a Discussion in which you explain the significance of your findings but remember to use a report style structure throughout your work. 7|Page Recommendations: This is the heart of your report. What do you suggest should be done? Don’t be shy; you did the work so state your recommendations in order of priority, and in plain English. Again it will probably have several sections or subsections each with its own subtitle Conclusions: Present the logical conclusions of your investigation of ‘the problem’. Bring it all together and maybe offer options for the way forward. Many people will read this section. Write it in plain English. If you have included a discussion then this section may be quite short. Appendices: Put the heavy details here, the information that only specialists are likely to want to see. As a guide, if some detail is essential to your argument then include it in the main body, if it merely supports the argument then it could go in an appendix. Make sure you signpost this information in the main body of your report. 8|Page Marking Scheme 1st (70+%) An excellent assignment. It demonstrates a high level of understanding of the learning outcomes. The report provides evidence of significant understanding of marketing strategy theory/techniques and its application to the selected organisation. All decisions are logical, coherent, fully justified, explained succinctly and coherently, but also demonstrates a high level of insight and originality. The presentation is of a very high standard demonstrating a professional approach which is generally free of errors. 2:1 (60-69%) A very good assignment. It demonstrates a reasonably high level of understanding of the learning outcomes. The assignment provides evidence of understanding of marketing strategy theory/techniques and its application to the selected organisation. All decisions are logical, justified and explained however are less strong in terms of insight and originality. The presentation is of a high standard and predominantly free from errors. 2. 2 (50-59%) A good assignment. It demonstrates a sound understanding of the learning outcomes. The report provides evidence of understanding of marketing strategy theory/techniques and its application to the selected organisation, though this may be somewhat limited. Most decisions are appropriate however are less strong in terms of insight, logic and originality. The presentation is adequate. 3rd (40-49%) A satisfactory assignment. It demonstrates an understanding of the learning outcomes. The report provides evidence of understanding of marketing strategy theory/techniques and its application to the selected organisation, although this is limited. Decisions are appropriate however lack coherence, insight and logic. The presentation is adequate, but lacks cohesion. 9|Page Grade F (

Tibet Essays (1321 words) - Tibet, Tibet Autonomous Region, Lhasa

Tibet China Tibet, also known as TAR, is a democratic region in China that is very poor, and is mainly inhabited by Buddhists. Throughout its long history, Tibet at times has governed itself as an independent state and at other times has had various levels of association with China. Whatever China 's involvement in Tibetan affairs, Tibet's internal government was for centuries a theocracy, under the leadership of Buddhist lamas, or monks. In 1959 the Dalai Lama fled to India during a Tibetan revolt against Chinese control in the region. China then took complete control of Tibet, installing a sympathetic Tibetan ruler and, in 1965, replacing with a Communist administration (Encarta 1). The TAR covers an area of about 472,000 square miles. It is bounded on the north by Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region and Qinghai Province; on the east by Sichuan and Yunnan provinces; on the south by Myanmar (formally known as Burma), India, Bhutan, and Nepal; and on the west by India. Lhasa is the region's capital and largest city (Schaller 72). With an average elevation of more than 12,000 feet, Tibet is the highest region on earth, and for this reason, it is sometimes called the Roof of the World. Most of the people in Tibet live at elevations ranging from 3,900 feet to 16,700 feet. Tibet is also one of the world's most isolated regions, surrounded by the Himalayas on the south, the Karakorum Range on the west, and the Kunlun Mountains on the north (Encarta 1). The southern part of Tibet is situated entirely within the Himalayas, and many of the world's highest summits are located in the Himalayan chain, which extends along Tibet's southern frontier. Among the peaks are Mount Everest(29,028 feet), the world's largest mountain; Namcha Barwa(25,445 feet); and Gurla Mandhata(25,354 feet). The Kailas Range, a chain of the Himalayas, lies parallel to and north of the main chain and has peaks of up to 22,000 feet. Between the Kailas Range and the main chain is a river valley that extends about 600 miles. The Brahmaputra River (known in Tibet as the Yarlung Zangbo) flows from west to east through most of this valley (Encarta 1). The mountains in Tibet form Asia's principal watershed, or dividing line, between westward-flowing and eastward-flowing streams, and Tibet is the source of the continent's major rivers. The Brahmaputra is Tibet's most important river. The Indus, Ganges, and Sutlej rivers have their headwaters in western Tibet. Many of Tibet's rivers have potential for hydroelectric development (Encarta 1). Vegetation on the Tibetan Plateau is extremely sparse, consisting mainly of grasses and shrubs. Scattered wooded areas occur in extreme west and east. Most vegetation, however, is concentrated in Brahmaputra, Indus, and Sutlej river valleys. These areas support most species of trees, including conifers, oaks, cypresses, poplars, and maples. Apple, peach, pear, and apricot trees are cultivated in the valleys (Encarta 1). Tibet is home to a variety of wildlife. Musk deer, wild sheep, wild goats, wild donkeys, yaks, and Tibetan antelope are common in mountainous areas. Other large mammals include leopards, tigers, bears, wolves, foxes, and monkeys. Bird life includes geese, gulls, teal, and other species of waterfowl, and also pheasants and sand grouse (Encarta 1). Tibet has a dry, cold climate with an average annual temperature of 34 degrees Fahrenheit. It is very bitter in Tibet in the winter (Harrer 39). Temperatures in the mountains and plateaus are especially cold, and strong winds are common year round. The river valleys experience a more moderate climate. Lhasa and central Tibet have an average temperature of 32 degrees Fahrenheit in December and an average of 60 degrees Fahrenheit in June. The daily temperature range is great. On a typical summer day, the temperature can rise from 37 degrees Fahrenheit before sunrise to 81 degrees Fahrenheit before midday. In general, temperatures in Tibet frequently drop suddenly after sunset. The average annual precipitation is 15 inches (Encarta 2). The Tibet pamphlet states that Tibet is rich in mineral resources, although few have been exploited due to inaccessibility, a lack of industrial capacity, and Buddhist admonitions against disturbing the earth for fear of harming living creatures. Gold is found in many areas, and significant deposits of iron ore, coal, salt, and borax are also present. Other known resources include oil shale, manganese, lead, zinc, quartz, and graphite (14). Since 1959 the Chinese government has capitalized on some of Tibet's resources by mining chromite, tinkalite, and boromagnesite; constructing hydroelectric and geothermal plants; and logging timber. In eastern Tibet, serious environmental concerns have been raised over the extent of

galileo1 essays

galileo1 essays Galileo Galilei was born in Pisa Italy on February 15, 1564. Later in the 1570's his father, Vincenzo Galileo moved his family to the near by city of Florence. He was the oldest of four children , and as a child he was the most likely inclined to be the smarter of the family. It was here that Galileo's formal education began at a school in a near by monastery. This school was taught by monks, and for a while it was belied that Galileo would grow up to become a member of the religious orders. At the school he studied Greek, Latin and logic. since his father was a musician, he received an introduction and a musical background. Then finally in 1581 he was accepted and entered the University of Pisa, where he was studying medicine. Then after some time passed he grew bored of medicine. He found a deep interest in the field of mathematics. It seemed that all of his time was spent studying mathematics. When he turned twenty-one he was forced to leave the university because of a lack of int erest, ending his formal education. After he left all his time was spent he continued his research of mathematics. While he was studying he became an acquaintance Marchese de Monte. After Marchese de monte saw Galileo's work he grew interested in him. Shortly afterward he was taken in by Marchese to assist him in his research. It was as if Galileo was his apprentice. They both worked together to formulate the Treatise on the Centers of Gravity. It was this paper that they wrote which first made Galileo's presence felt in the world of science. Marchese helped him to obtain a position as a professor at the University of Pisa. There he spent the next two years teaching. He was forced to leave because other professors and students themselves considered his teachings to be radical and extreme. After he was forced to leave he headed back home to spend time with his family. A short while after he arrived to Florence his father passed away. He was forced to ...

Existentialism and Marxism Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Existentialism and Marxism Paper - Essay Example This notion swept the world through a phase of political change that evolved generation after generation. There was also the concept of Existentialism that also spread through Latin America in a major manner. This concept was unique in that it stressed the significance of experience as compared to notions that come from other people’s views. This means that it identifies an individual to be a free being not to follow various factors from others. Many philosophers had different notions on the two different philosophies and the comparison of their views goes deep. Romero Francisco in Theory of a Man displays his vast and widespread support of the Existentialism notion. In this book, he argues deeply stating that the running of the society through material ideology is nothing but a waste of time due to the manner through which the society has progressed through the ages (Romero 134). The author states very clearly that he very much supports the effort and the changes observed in the behavioral sciences and that they have hopes in the future but rather discredits the pace through which they have had in the past days. Romero states that in Latin America, people were rather confused on the way to which they should follow in society and thus many of them did not have a sound decision but rather followed the mass (Romero 142). He states this to be the reason unto why societal progress has been very slow from those days, thus Existentialism credited, and the entire disregard pointed towards Marxism. He also goes ahead to state that the weakness of the human being is what made him believe in culture rather the scientific revolution of the age. He states that with the stand that he takes on the issue, he has no offence towards reductionism and that it is a concept feared only by those with developmental fear. A writer that is clearly against this notion is Enrique Dussel’s Philosophy of Liberation. In this book, Enrique goes a long way in explaining the mann er in which the Latin Americans were represented or rather took up Marxism and states that this was a rather conscious decision for them (Dussel 67). In the book, he majorly focuses on issues relating to Ethics and politics. Enrique states that human beings in the era needed a political scope of the world and notes a sociological view because understanding the society was not just enough. Enrique claims that for one to concentrate on the rather large Latin American society at the time, the basic philosophy to understand is that on politics. Enrique states that no society can run without the basic unit that is a government. It is due to this that he states that the formation of a government was important. It is from this governing body that unity was found to develop and as a single unit, there was the ability to move forward with decisions that are more informed rather than having an individual making a single decision (Dussel 154). This is because it would lead to confusion with on e another constantly ending in feuds and thus the importance of the Marxism movement in Latin America. Francisco Milro Quesda in Without Theory goes a long way in explaining the various concepts that show the reason as to why the Existentialism notion was rather important in the Latin American society. He states that many of the human philosophies going around are baseless and are bound to fail because they base the human experience in a manner that the issues that they faced were rather

Dystopia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Dystopia - Essay Example In this urbanized society of chaos, fear is used as a way of coercing the collective will of its citizenry. Some of these fears include globalization, fear of aliens (earthly and otherwise), fear of immigrants, and a fear of loss of cultural identity. Other elements that contribute to the dystopic state are: widespread acts of violence within the working classes, and a dummy government that is utterly incapable of restoring any law and order. The escalating anarchy is related to the densely populated urban settings, the predominant of which is Los Angeles. The above mentioned characteristics of urban life in 2019 America may not have all elements of a dystopian state manifest in it. But, there is enough chaos, anarchy, disorder and violence to classify this environment s a dystopian one. On the other hand, the dystopia depicted in the movie Brazil is not so much an anarchic one as it a totalitarian one. It has resonances with the George Orwell’s dystopia of 1984 – an impotent bureaucracy, prompt action against dissenters and a highly commercialized culture where elevated human values are of no positive consequence. To top this state of civil decay, the totalitarian government is also inhuman and inefficient. The people feel hopeless and have no option other than subordinating themselves for the interests of the state. The constant surveillance of people keeps the whole society on an edge, making violent civil outbreaks a frequent occurrence. The violations against basic rights are so profound that protestation as a concept does not even arises among the people. In both the cases of fiction, the natural conditions for a psychologically healthy living are not provided to the people by the state. Hence, they resort to violent and unethical ways of finding some respite. In both the movies, terrorism is shown as a ever growing phenomenon. More disturbingly, its prevalence is so profound that the people have

Training Needs Theories and Principles

Training Needs Theories and Principles Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.1 Introduction Training has become a key focus for many organizations wishing to increase their capability, to pursue their strategy and to achieve their goals. It has a great impact not only on efficiency and organizational performance, but also on employees behaviour within the organization. Flexible training programmes may also help an organization to be more responsive to changes in its environment. Therefore, the first objective of this chapter is to explore the meaning of training and of training needs, while the second is to examine the theories dealing with these concepts. It then turns more specifically to an exploration of literature examining training needs in police organizations. 2.2 Developing Countries According to Kinsey (1988), developing country is a term used to describe countries outside the so-called Western bloc of technically advanced nations (North America, Western Europe, Japan, Australia and New Zealand) and the communist bloc. However, due to the rapid economic development in some countries (NICs) and the political and economic disturbances in the communist bloc which have resulted in dramatic changes during the last two decades, the above definition must be amended. Other terms which have been used to designate these countries include industrializing, less-developed and underdeveloped. Each tends to have certain connotations, some being more complementary than others, and some gaining popularity while others disappear. Whatever term is used, these countries are distinguished by widespread poverty. Beside this basic characteristic, Kinsey (1988) describes developing countries as having certain similarities, including low income per capita and per worker, small industria l sectors, few economies of scale, primitive technology, lack of specialization, low capital per worker, small savings per head for the bulk of the population, lack of enterprise, inadequate physical and social infrastructure, low volume of international trade per head and low efficiency. The question is: how could developing countries influence our country in management training? 2.3 Organizational Characteristics Organizations may be characterized in many different ways, depending on the reason for the classification. For the purposes of the present research, the characteristics of the Dubai Police must be examined in relation to the need for training; several authors have suggested that organization size, type of ownership and industrial sector are the main variables affecting the management of training needs (Abdalla and AlHomud, 1995). Alternatively, Wright and Geory (1992) connect training needs with management strategy, organizational structure and corporate culture. In theory, organizations can be characterized in many ways, but there is general agreement that the size of the organization is of prime importance, followed by structure, strategy (e.g. short or long term), technology use, environment and organisational culture. These are the theoretical concepts which will be examined in this study as quantifiable conditions and variables in the management of the Dubai Police. Definitions of Training Training is a very important process in any organization, allowing it to develop its employees skills and improve their performance at work. This section considers the definitions of training suggested by a number of authors. Thus, training can be described as a perfect way to learn a job or to develop employees skills. The organization of individual skills is a significant characteristic of business responsibility today, and employee motivation potentially grows in the process (Noe, 1999). The profit from employee development extends further than the concrete skills gained and their effect on an individuals efficiency (Benson, 2002). Among the many important definitions of training, the following selection is organised chronologically for convenience. Training has historical definitions; for example, Schuler and MacMillan (1984) defined it as part of human resource management (HRM) practice which has the potential to contribute to gains in competitive advantage. But this definition was incomplete because in 1984 there was a lack of information on HRM, which was still a new concept for many organizations. There was also a focus on competitive advantage among organizations, ignoring employee development and direct benefit to the organizations business. Rainbird and Heyes (1994) then defined training as employee development via engaging employees in a commitment to the organization. But this definition only involved employees in commitment and did not state how they were to be developed at work, so Heyes and Stuart (1996) refined this definition by adding that training is a development process which evolves through strategic stages. This definition indicates that development in any organization, whether short or long term, involves organizational commitment. Buckely and Caple (1995) defined training as a strategy to develop employees in skills, knowledge and attitude through a learning experience to achieve effective performance in a range of activities. Again, this definition was subject to important refinements, when Montesino (2002) pointed out that many factors may affect the effectiveness of training, including individual employees behaviour, the training programme, the local environment and the amount of support from each trainees immediate supervisor. Earlier, when Smith and Hayton (1999) defined training, they also attempted to show how certain factors impact on training needs and the decision to train employees. First, employee performance is very important and should be improved. Secondly, improvement is needed in the flexibility and adaptability of employees. Finally, training always needs new technology and investment in training needs to achieve high performance in an organization. This definition indicates the importance of high performance for training decisions, of changing the roles within the organization to increase flexibility and adaptability at work and of using new technology to achieve high performance. The authors also claim that it is a more sophisticated system of human resources management. According to Sparrow (1998), training can be managed to elicit the desired attitudes and behaviours in employees and to enhance involvement, motivation and organizational commitment. The main point of this definition is to motivate and involve employees in organizational commitment; the result could be to change employees behaviour, but these processes are controlled by the organization. Bartlett (2001) adds to this perspective by noting that there are many ways to motivate employees, the best being to improve access to training and the motivation to learn from training, as well as emphasising the perceived benefits of training. This definition shows the importance of motivating employees in training programmes and the benefit to be gained from supervisory support for training within the organization. Finally, Palo and Padhi (2003) define training as the process of developing skills, updating knowledge, changing employees behaviour and attitudes in order to improve their performance and abilities and so to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of the organization. 2.5 Training Theories 2.5.1 Training and Behaviour Theories Luthans (1998) considers that training can help organisations to change employees behaviour and that one technique of behaviour modification, encouraging desired behaviours and discouraging unwanted ones, is operant conditioning. Such behaviourist techniques were first used for the treatment of mental disorders and phobias, in psychiatric rehabilitation and in recovery from accident and trauma. Applications have since been extended to organisational settings. As developed by Fred Luthans (Luthans and Kreitner, 1985; Luthans et al., 1998), organisational behaviour modification theory has five mains steps. The first step is to identify the critical, observable and measurable performance-related behaviours to be encouraged. The second is to measure the current frequency of those behaviours, to provide a baseline against which to measure improvement. Next, the triggers or antecedents for those behaviours are identified, as are their consequences, positive, neutral and negative. The fourth step is to develop an intervention strategy to strengthen desired behaviours and weaken dysfunctional behaviours through the use of positive reinforcement (money, recognition) and corrective feedback, noting that punishment may be necessary, for example to inhibit unsafe behaviour. Finally, there is a systematic evaluation of the effectiveness of the approach in changing behaviour and improving performance over the baseline. Training can appear particularly attractive to managers, who are often in ideal positions to manipulate the reinforcement of certain employee behaviours. They also tend to find this approach attractive because it argues that what has to be changed is behaviour, and that to achieve this one needs to know very little about the complex internal workings of the people concerned. Desirable workplace behaviours include speaking courteously to customers, attending training to develop new skills and being helpful to colleagues. Undesirable ones include lateness, the production of poor quality items and being uncooperative. Training should eliminate undesired behaviour and increase the frequency of desired work behaviour. Suppose a manager wants more work assignments completed on time and fewer submitted beyond deadline. The behaviour modification options are summarized in Table 2.5.1. Luthans (1998) gives some ideas for improving performance through training, which failed to work. But Luthans argues that behaviour modification should be designed to suit organisational applications. Firstly, training should be applied to clearly identifiable and observable behaviours, such as timekeeping, carrying out checks and repairs, and the use of particular work methods. Secondly, to change organisational behaviour there should be a good strategy of rewards which are contingent on the performance of the desirable behaviours. Thirdly, training should focus on positive reinforcement, which can take a number of forms, from the praise of a superior to cash prizes, food or clothing. Finally, training can lead to sustained modification of behaviour only if positive reinforcement is continued (albeit intermittently). Training and Motivation Theories Smith and Hayton (1999) identify the following theories, which mention the role of training in organizations. i. Human capital theory This theory focuses on training in terms of economic investment. Human capital theory sees training as improving efficiency (Becker, 1964; Mincer, 1974; Strober, 1990). It is concerned with developing ideal training conditions. In the 1980s neo-human capital theory stated that organizations should train their employees consecutively to develop the flexibility and suppleness of the workforce and their receptiveness to modernisation (Bartel and Lichtenberg, 1987). ii. Human resource management theory This theory concerns the commitment of employees to the organization and views training and employee development as a means of engaging it (Rainbird, 1994; Heyes and Stuart, 1996). The early formulation of a hypothetical structure for HRM came from the Harvard Business School in the early 1980s (Beer et al., 1984). Training is seen as a strategy for managing the human resource flow of a venture which, with other human resource policies, creates commitment, competence, congruence and cost-effectiveness. iii. Training and high performance theory This is among the most widely adopted theories in organizations in Britain and the USA. It concerns the skills trajectory and proposes a distinction between those occupations which are becoming increasingly skilful and others which are deskilling over time (Gallie and White, 1993; Cappelli, 1993). Studies of high-performance employment practices and HRM strategies have resulted in the concept of human resources bundles (MacDuffie, 1995; Dyer and Reeves, 1995) which highlight the significance of implementing a number of HRM practices collectively in bundles in order to enhance performance. Training is always cited as a critical measure within the set. Training Needs Analysis Training needs analysis (TNA) is a very important stage in the methodical training cycle of design, delivery and evaluation. The purpose of TNA is to take account of unusual meanings and perspectives depending upon a variety of actors in the process, avoiding misunderstandings about prospects and what can be achieved. In addition, external trainers and consultants are able to acknowledge the importance of a challenge when they rely upon TNA which has been conducted prior to their involvement with an organization. For instance, the excellence of feedback provided by the TNA process might differ significantly, from a very detailed search to a cheap and cheerful canvassing of opinions about what is needed. In addition to the challenges noted above, there are considerations about whose benefit is served: Is the training compulsory? Does it represent the needs of individual people, their managers, the organization, etc? 2.6.1 Definition of Training Needs Analysis Williamson (1993) defines TNA as a systematic approach to determining the real training needs which exist within an organization or department. This indicates that TNA involves collecting information, for example by examining the training programmes of different organizations. A number of managers will refer to the total procedure of identifying the essential training needs, after which the next step is to analyze and address them by the best available method. The pure understanding of the term describes the last procedure simply. Although understanding can differ, it is significant that there is supposed to be constancy of practice within any organization and all employees are assumed to be completely conscious of the sense of local terminology in this field. The term training need can be difficult to define in practice, with serious consequences. On other hand, there are many authors who have defined training needs analysis as the examination or diagnostic portion of the training system. In addition, it seeks to determine whether there exists a case of supposed performance deficiency in many organizations (Camp et al., 1986). This view applies to TNA. That is to say, needs evaluation in a training needs analysis is, in truth, a diagnostic attempt, rather than an effort to identify an apparently deficient performance, because TNA does not have direct access to employees performance. Conversely, Goldstein (1986) defines TNA as an attempt to analyze and diagnose an organization, task or individual, to decide if a cure is required and if so, which is the most likely to produce the desired results. Once more, TNA is seen as a diagnostic process at an organizational level. 2.6.2 Approaches to TNA One of the earliest writers on TNA was Boydell (1976), who planned a methodical approach to training needs that had its roots in analyzing supplies using a method based on organizational objectives. For Boydell (1976, p. 4), A training need exists when the application of systematic training will serve to overcome a particular weakness. He also argues that training needs must be identified before training begins. A similar perspective is presented by Bartram and Gibson (1994, p. 3): Analyzing training needs provides a focus and direction for the investment an organization has to make in its people. Likewise, Bee and Bee (2003) assert that organizations needs are the drivers for training solutions to close any performance gap. Two supporting considerations which influence TNA are also noted by Reay (1994). Firstly, establishing who has ownership of the TNA is likely to determine whether the findings are ignored or implemented. Secondly, the person who really pays for it will point to t he real employees and this is usually senior management. On the other hand, this methodical approach to TNA tends to adopt organizational perspectives. Reid and Barrington (1999) accept these perspectives, but warn that the needs may sometimes conflict, e.g. long-term development for an individual and lack of support opportunities might contradict each other. Similarly, Sloman (1994, p. 24) notes that in the training sphere there can be a singular divergence of interests between the organization and the individual. This viewpoint is shared by Palmer (2006), who warns against assessing training needs solely from the viewpoint of the organization. Many individual employees correctly follow their own training and development agendas and strategies. There are also sound business and motivational reasons for organizations to help employees to complete their self-development needs. Learning and development are continuing and practical (Sloman, 2003). They are supposed not to have to wait for business needs and training objectives to be set before embarking on a programme. Therefore, individuals need to take more responsibility for their own learning, rather than waiting for the organization to lead them. 2.6.3 Important TNA Factors in a Changing Competitive Environment There are important factors which affect TNA in a competitive environment for any organization and which a professional approach to change requires those responsible to consider. These are now examined in turn. i. Cross-competitive environment The abolition of collective differences in vocational results can be maintained by training programmes for diverse employees in a competitive environment, which can produce admiration for individual differences in attitudes, values and behaviours, according to DNetto and Sohal (1999), who recommend certain practices in the field of training. These include identifying exact training needs which are connected to the organizations goals and objectives; assessing individual training needs to facilitate a contribution within the training programme; developing individual annual training strategies which take account of knowledge, operational and interpersonal skills, attitudes to the job and technological skills training; evaluating literacy, language and numeracy to assess the ability to undergo training; connecting training to rewards, project agreements, development procedures and pay scales; and identifying the complementary skills of employees through a review process. ii. Diversity Moore (1999) suggests that a diversity needs analysis is required for the effective integration of diverse group members. Two contrasting approaches to diversity of background are to ensure that the organization is diversity blind or to provide a diversity-negative environment. According to Moore (1999), an important starting point in an environment of diversity in TNA is awareness of different challenges faced by people from different backgrounds within the organization. Training programmes should facilitate the understanding and appreciation of actual differences between people, which can apply in communicating and using language, in learning styles, in methods of dealing with conflict and in task and relationship orientation. Developing and integrating competencies and skills in culturally diverse employees is the next step presented by Moore (1999). It should create a mechanism whereby individuals learn to avoid damaging processes due to dysfunctional interpersonal conflict, miscommunication, higher levels of stress, slower decision-making and problems with group cohesiveness. Moore (1999) states that the development of important communication skills is needed in order to achieve effective integration of competencies. These skills are the ability to consider viewpoints that may differ from ones own, to communicate, to negotiate and to face difficulties appropriately. iii. Leadership According to Silverthorne (2005), leadership plays an important role in decision-making and organizational achievement. In order to develop effectively in a cross-competitive environment, leaders must understand and control their own behaviour, as this affects employees perceptions of leadership. They must also ensure that environmental issues are considered when choosing the best management style. However, appreciating the differences in leadership styles is not sufficient to be an effectual leader, as the necessary insight also varies with the environment. Silverthorne (2005) states that an effectual leader knows which leadership style to employ and when to employ it. There are four contrasting leadership styles: active or involved, supportive, participative and attainment-oriented. Active leaders tell subordinates what is required and put into effect individual systems to direct them; the supportive leader creates a friendly environment and is responsive to her subordinates needs; the participative leader engages them in the decision-making process; and the achievement-oriented leader applies high standards to the decision-making process and appears confident that subordinates will reach them. Silverthorne (2005) argues that an effective leaders choice of leadership style is based on the context of the task and the needs of the subordinates. iiii. Communication Silverthorne (2005) also suggests that one way to achieve better communication between individuals with different competitive backgrounds is to apply TNA to managers on how to work in a competitive environment. He proposes four ways of reducing cross-environment communication problems. First, managers should focus on differences in communication styles. Understanding that employees are different means describing a behaviour, rather than the individual. This will give the manager the time to understand the subject being discussed. Thirdly, the manager should attempt to understand the subject from the employees perspective. Seeing the employees point of view gives the manager an opportunity to better understand what the employee is trying to communicate. Finally, the manager must listen more openly than normal and engage in exercises to improve the communication process. 2.7 Management Training Many organizations today have training programmes for their employees but the reasons for conducting them vary widely. Some provide job orientation for new recruits; others training on new equipment for existing employees or strategic planning courses for managers. Successful managers need multi-skills training and detailed information about the organization. Training programmes for managers should cover different skills than those for employees; examples are functional, administrative, planning and leadership skills. Assessing changes in performance following training is complicated by the fact that while some of these skills can be easily observed in the short term, others will be apparent only from long-term changes in the performance of the manager, the department or the entire organisation. 2.7.1 Different types of training needs All employees should be aware of the types of management training their organization offers, because many will be planning to be line-managers in the future, so will require certain skills. McConnell (2003) lists twelve types of training which are very useful in ones current job and helpful for the future. These are now examined in turn. i. Group Training Group training involves three or more individuals who participate in a common learning activity, generally led by a group facilitator. ii. Coaching Coaching is one-on-one job training. Generally it includes demonstrations, lectures and observation of practice. iii. Mentoring This is a process in which experienced employees are assigned to assist newer employees through guidance. Sometimes it takes a formal approach; at others it is informal. It is also used to introduce employees to a companys culture and environment. iiii. Self-Paced Learning This is any learning activity in which the learner determines the speed at which the material is covered. Generally, it is an individualized form of instruction, but it can be used with groups, the speed being set either individually or by the group. V. E-Learning This is a term used to describe learning activities conducted from the users desktop via the Internet or e-mail. It is generally an individual activity. Vi. Computer-Assisted Instruction This is the delivery of training via a computer. Again it is generally individualized. It can include programmes on modelling, simulation, practice and knowledge. Vii. Distance Learning Training This describes instruction in which the teacher is geographically separated from the learner. Connection can be via satellite or phone line with the instruction delivered to a PC or to a room specially equipped with video or audio conferencing equipment. Viii. Self-Study Self-study refers to learning activities initiated and participated in by an individual. Programmed or computer-assisted instruction and reading assignments can all be self-study activities. Viiii. Simulations These are controlled and standardized representations of a job, activity or situation used as a basis for developing skills in dealing with the simulated situations. VV. Lectures These are structured oral presentations delivered for the transfer of information. VVi. Job Assignments Job assignments place an individual into an actual job, generally for a limited period of time, the primary goal being to learn all or part of the job. VVii. Job Rotation This is similar to job assignment but generally includes several assignments in a planned order or the exchange of jobs with another person. 2.7.2 Different levels of training needs The objective of a training needs analysis is the identification of the training required to meet the recognized needs. In point of fact, while these may be accepted or revised by the employees, a senior person may be assigned to decide what training is necessary. The person conducting the training or assessing the needs is not always the individual who develops or recommends the training. On the other hand, the most important step in TNA is to translate the recognized needs into objectives. Then individual objectives can be used to develop or choose a training approach at individual and organization level. Beside the types of training, McConnell (2003) specifies the levels of needs for individual and organization and the personnel who will conduct the training. i. Supervisors These are the people who manage the people being trained. ii. Human Resources These are the professionals in the human resources department. If training is a function of the HR department, it is treated separately. iii. Operating Department Employees These are the employees of the department for which an individual is to be trained. iiii. Training Department Personnel These are generally training professionals employed by the training department. Their strengths are their skills and knowledge of training techniques and procedures. The most common criticism of such people is that they lack specific job or operational knowledge. Some organizations assign their trainers to specific areas-sometimes even to temporary work in the operating departments-to overcome such weaknesses. V. Operating Department Personnel on Temporary Assignment to Training These are people who usually have excellent job knowledge but often lack training skills. Many organizations use this approach because it gives greater credibility to the training sessions, while the operating personnel on such an assignment benefit greatly from the experience and learning of training techniques. Vi. External Professionals These are usually training consultants, supplier employees, or academics. Generally, they are used when the required degree of knowledge or skill is not available within the organization. These people are usually excellent trainers, but they can be expensive to use. If they offer similar classes on a regular basis, consistency may be lost if the same external person does not conduct all classes. Vii. External Organizations Local schools and professional organizations often conduct registration programmes in general subjects. Knowing the types of training currently being used by an organization and who conducts each training type provides an initial indication of what can be done. However, in some cases the training will have to be designed and/or obtained elsewhere. 2.7.3 The Roles of HR, Trainers and Line-Managers The many roles within the training function can be analyzed and their strengths and weaknesses identified. The training function within an organization should have as part of its mission the meeting of the organizations requirements; its success at accomplishing that will be the basis for the analysis. HR people and line-managers in the training function should help the organization to improve and involve employees in training courses which could be helpful in enhancing their skills and hence their performance, so HR people and line-managers must undertake a number of tasks, summarised below. Training organization: the mission of the training function, its internal structure, and internal and external relationships. Training personnel: the selection, qualifications, and motivation of department employees. Employee training in the requirements of specific jobs or activities. Employee development training in the requirements of future jobs and broadening their abilities in their current posts. Remedial training, conducted to correct inadequate basic skills such as mathematics, reading and writing. Organizational development: improving communication and understanding throughout the organization in order to produce effective, functioning teams; establishing or changing to a desired culture; and responding to changing conditions. Internal and external communication of the training departments abilities, results, and offerings. Training facilities: the physical space and equipment allocated to conduct training. Identifying training needs: determining the training required by individual employees and the organization. Training design and development: creating, structuring, or obtaining a training programme to meet specific ob Training Needs Theories and Principles Training Needs Theories and Principles Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.1 Introduction Training has become a key focus for many organizations wishing to increase their capability, to pursue their strategy and to achieve their goals. It has a great impact not only on efficiency and organizational performance, but also on employees behaviour within the organization. Flexible training programmes may also help an organization to be more responsive to changes in its environment. Therefore, the first objective of this chapter is to explore the meaning of training and of training needs, while the second is to examine the theories dealing with these concepts. It then turns more specifically to an exploration of literature examining training needs in police organizations. 2.2 Developing Countries According to Kinsey (1988), developing country is a term used to describe countries outside the so-called Western bloc of technically advanced nations (North America, Western Europe, Japan, Australia and New Zealand) and the communist bloc. However, due to the rapid economic development in some countries (NICs) and the political and economic disturbances in the communist bloc which have resulted in dramatic changes during the last two decades, the above definition must be amended. Other terms which have been used to designate these countries include industrializing, less-developed and underdeveloped. Each tends to have certain connotations, some being more complementary than others, and some gaining popularity while others disappear. Whatever term is used, these countries are distinguished by widespread poverty. Beside this basic characteristic, Kinsey (1988) describes developing countries as having certain similarities, including low income per capita and per worker, small industria l sectors, few economies of scale, primitive technology, lack of specialization, low capital per worker, small savings per head for the bulk of the population, lack of enterprise, inadequate physical and social infrastructure, low volume of international trade per head and low efficiency. The question is: how could developing countries influence our country in management training? 2.3 Organizational Characteristics Organizations may be characterized in many different ways, depending on the reason for the classification. For the purposes of the present research, the characteristics of the Dubai Police must be examined in relation to the need for training; several authors have suggested that organization size, type of ownership and industrial sector are the main variables affecting the management of training needs (Abdalla and AlHomud, 1995). Alternatively, Wright and Geory (1992) connect training needs with management strategy, organizational structure and corporate culture. In theory, organizations can be characterized in many ways, but there is general agreement that the size of the organization is of prime importance, followed by structure, strategy (e.g. short or long term), technology use, environment and organisational culture. These are the theoretical concepts which will be examined in this study as quantifiable conditions and variables in the management of the Dubai Police. Definitions of Training Training is a very important process in any organization, allowing it to develop its employees skills and improve their performance at work. This section considers the definitions of training suggested by a number of authors. Thus, training can be described as a perfect way to learn a job or to develop employees skills. The organization of individual skills is a significant characteristic of business responsibility today, and employee motivation potentially grows in the process (Noe, 1999). The profit from employee development extends further than the concrete skills gained and their effect on an individuals efficiency (Benson, 2002). Among the many important definitions of training, the following selection is organised chronologically for convenience. Training has historical definitions; for example, Schuler and MacMillan (1984) defined it as part of human resource management (HRM) practice which has the potential to contribute to gains in competitive advantage. But this definition was incomplete because in 1984 there was a lack of information on HRM, which was still a new concept for many organizations. There was also a focus on competitive advantage among organizations, ignoring employee development and direct benefit to the organizations business. Rainbird and Heyes (1994) then defined training as employee development via engaging employees in a commitment to the organization. But this definition only involved employees in commitment and did not state how they were to be developed at work, so Heyes and Stuart (1996) refined this definition by adding that training is a development process which evolves through strategic stages. This definition indicates that development in any organization, whether short or long term, involves organizational commitment. Buckely and Caple (1995) defined training as a strategy to develop employees in skills, knowledge and attitude through a learning experience to achieve effective performance in a range of activities. Again, this definition was subject to important refinements, when Montesino (2002) pointed out that many factors may affect the effectiveness of training, including individual employees behaviour, the training programme, the local environment and the amount of support from each trainees immediate supervisor. Earlier, when Smith and Hayton (1999) defined training, they also attempted to show how certain factors impact on training needs and the decision to train employees. First, employee performance is very important and should be improved. Secondly, improvement is needed in the flexibility and adaptability of employees. Finally, training always needs new technology and investment in training needs to achieve high performance in an organization. This definition indicates the importance of high performance for training decisions, of changing the roles within the organization to increase flexibility and adaptability at work and of using new technology to achieve high performance. The authors also claim that it is a more sophisticated system of human resources management. According to Sparrow (1998), training can be managed to elicit the desired attitudes and behaviours in employees and to enhance involvement, motivation and organizational commitment. The main point of this definition is to motivate and involve employees in organizational commitment; the result could be to change employees behaviour, but these processes are controlled by the organization. Bartlett (2001) adds to this perspective by noting that there are many ways to motivate employees, the best being to improve access to training and the motivation to learn from training, as well as emphasising the perceived benefits of training. This definition shows the importance of motivating employees in training programmes and the benefit to be gained from supervisory support for training within the organization. Finally, Palo and Padhi (2003) define training as the process of developing skills, updating knowledge, changing employees behaviour and attitudes in order to improve their performance and abilities and so to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of the organization. 2.5 Training Theories 2.5.1 Training and Behaviour Theories Luthans (1998) considers that training can help organisations to change employees behaviour and that one technique of behaviour modification, encouraging desired behaviours and discouraging unwanted ones, is operant conditioning. Such behaviourist techniques were first used for the treatment of mental disorders and phobias, in psychiatric rehabilitation and in recovery from accident and trauma. Applications have since been extended to organisational settings. As developed by Fred Luthans (Luthans and Kreitner, 1985; Luthans et al., 1998), organisational behaviour modification theory has five mains steps. The first step is to identify the critical, observable and measurable performance-related behaviours to be encouraged. The second is to measure the current frequency of those behaviours, to provide a baseline against which to measure improvement. Next, the triggers or antecedents for those behaviours are identified, as are their consequences, positive, neutral and negative. The fourth step is to develop an intervention strategy to strengthen desired behaviours and weaken dysfunctional behaviours through the use of positive reinforcement (money, recognition) and corrective feedback, noting that punishment may be necessary, for example to inhibit unsafe behaviour. Finally, there is a systematic evaluation of the effectiveness of the approach in changing behaviour and improving performance over the baseline. Training can appear particularly attractive to managers, who are often in ideal positions to manipulate the reinforcement of certain employee behaviours. They also tend to find this approach attractive because it argues that what has to be changed is behaviour, and that to achieve this one needs to know very little about the complex internal workings of the people concerned. Desirable workplace behaviours include speaking courteously to customers, attending training to develop new skills and being helpful to colleagues. Undesirable ones include lateness, the production of poor quality items and being uncooperative. Training should eliminate undesired behaviour and increase the frequency of desired work behaviour. Suppose a manager wants more work assignments completed on time and fewer submitted beyond deadline. The behaviour modification options are summarized in Table 2.5.1. Luthans (1998) gives some ideas for improving performance through training, which failed to work. But Luthans argues that behaviour modification should be designed to suit organisational applications. Firstly, training should be applied to clearly identifiable and observable behaviours, such as timekeeping, carrying out checks and repairs, and the use of particular work methods. Secondly, to change organisational behaviour there should be a good strategy of rewards which are contingent on the performance of the desirable behaviours. Thirdly, training should focus on positive reinforcement, which can take a number of forms, from the praise of a superior to cash prizes, food or clothing. Finally, training can lead to sustained modification of behaviour only if positive reinforcement is continued (albeit intermittently). Training and Motivation Theories Smith and Hayton (1999) identify the following theories, which mention the role of training in organizations. i. Human capital theory This theory focuses on training in terms of economic investment. Human capital theory sees training as improving efficiency (Becker, 1964; Mincer, 1974; Strober, 1990). It is concerned with developing ideal training conditions. In the 1980s neo-human capital theory stated that organizations should train their employees consecutively to develop the flexibility and suppleness of the workforce and their receptiveness to modernisation (Bartel and Lichtenberg, 1987). ii. Human resource management theory This theory concerns the commitment of employees to the organization and views training and employee development as a means of engaging it (Rainbird, 1994; Heyes and Stuart, 1996). The early formulation of a hypothetical structure for HRM came from the Harvard Business School in the early 1980s (Beer et al., 1984). Training is seen as a strategy for managing the human resource flow of a venture which, with other human resource policies, creates commitment, competence, congruence and cost-effectiveness. iii. Training and high performance theory This is among the most widely adopted theories in organizations in Britain and the USA. It concerns the skills trajectory and proposes a distinction between those occupations which are becoming increasingly skilful and others which are deskilling over time (Gallie and White, 1993; Cappelli, 1993). Studies of high-performance employment practices and HRM strategies have resulted in the concept of human resources bundles (MacDuffie, 1995; Dyer and Reeves, 1995) which highlight the significance of implementing a number of HRM practices collectively in bundles in order to enhance performance. Training is always cited as a critical measure within the set. Training Needs Analysis Training needs analysis (TNA) is a very important stage in the methodical training cycle of design, delivery and evaluation. The purpose of TNA is to take account of unusual meanings and perspectives depending upon a variety of actors in the process, avoiding misunderstandings about prospects and what can be achieved. In addition, external trainers and consultants are able to acknowledge the importance of a challenge when they rely upon TNA which has been conducted prior to their involvement with an organization. For instance, the excellence of feedback provided by the TNA process might differ significantly, from a very detailed search to a cheap and cheerful canvassing of opinions about what is needed. In addition to the challenges noted above, there are considerations about whose benefit is served: Is the training compulsory? Does it represent the needs of individual people, their managers, the organization, etc? 2.6.1 Definition of Training Needs Analysis Williamson (1993) defines TNA as a systematic approach to determining the real training needs which exist within an organization or department. This indicates that TNA involves collecting information, for example by examining the training programmes of different organizations. A number of managers will refer to the total procedure of identifying the essential training needs, after which the next step is to analyze and address them by the best available method. The pure understanding of the term describes the last procedure simply. Although understanding can differ, it is significant that there is supposed to be constancy of practice within any organization and all employees are assumed to be completely conscious of the sense of local terminology in this field. The term training need can be difficult to define in practice, with serious consequences. On other hand, there are many authors who have defined training needs analysis as the examination or diagnostic portion of the training system. In addition, it seeks to determine whether there exists a case of supposed performance deficiency in many organizations (Camp et al., 1986). This view applies to TNA. That is to say, needs evaluation in a training needs analysis is, in truth, a diagnostic attempt, rather than an effort to identify an apparently deficient performance, because TNA does not have direct access to employees performance. Conversely, Goldstein (1986) defines TNA as an attempt to analyze and diagnose an organization, task or individual, to decide if a cure is required and if so, which is the most likely to produce the desired results. Once more, TNA is seen as a diagnostic process at an organizational level. 2.6.2 Approaches to TNA One of the earliest writers on TNA was Boydell (1976), who planned a methodical approach to training needs that had its roots in analyzing supplies using a method based on organizational objectives. For Boydell (1976, p. 4), A training need exists when the application of systematic training will serve to overcome a particular weakness. He also argues that training needs must be identified before training begins. A similar perspective is presented by Bartram and Gibson (1994, p. 3): Analyzing training needs provides a focus and direction for the investment an organization has to make in its people. Likewise, Bee and Bee (2003) assert that organizations needs are the drivers for training solutions to close any performance gap. Two supporting considerations which influence TNA are also noted by Reay (1994). Firstly, establishing who has ownership of the TNA is likely to determine whether the findings are ignored or implemented. Secondly, the person who really pays for it will point to t he real employees and this is usually senior management. On the other hand, this methodical approach to TNA tends to adopt organizational perspectives. Reid and Barrington (1999) accept these perspectives, but warn that the needs may sometimes conflict, e.g. long-term development for an individual and lack of support opportunities might contradict each other. Similarly, Sloman (1994, p. 24) notes that in the training sphere there can be a singular divergence of interests between the organization and the individual. This viewpoint is shared by Palmer (2006), who warns against assessing training needs solely from the viewpoint of the organization. Many individual employees correctly follow their own training and development agendas and strategies. There are also sound business and motivational reasons for organizations to help employees to complete their self-development needs. Learning and development are continuing and practical (Sloman, 2003). They are supposed not to have to wait for business needs and training objectives to be set before embarking on a programme. Therefore, individuals need to take more responsibility for their own learning, rather than waiting for the organization to lead them. 2.6.3 Important TNA Factors in a Changing Competitive Environment There are important factors which affect TNA in a competitive environment for any organization and which a professional approach to change requires those responsible to consider. These are now examined in turn. i. Cross-competitive environment The abolition of collective differences in vocational results can be maintained by training programmes for diverse employees in a competitive environment, which can produce admiration for individual differences in attitudes, values and behaviours, according to DNetto and Sohal (1999), who recommend certain practices in the field of training. These include identifying exact training needs which are connected to the organizations goals and objectives; assessing individual training needs to facilitate a contribution within the training programme; developing individual annual training strategies which take account of knowledge, operational and interpersonal skills, attitudes to the job and technological skills training; evaluating literacy, language and numeracy to assess the ability to undergo training; connecting training to rewards, project agreements, development procedures and pay scales; and identifying the complementary skills of employees through a review process. ii. Diversity Moore (1999) suggests that a diversity needs analysis is required for the effective integration of diverse group members. Two contrasting approaches to diversity of background are to ensure that the organization is diversity blind or to provide a diversity-negative environment. According to Moore (1999), an important starting point in an environment of diversity in TNA is awareness of different challenges faced by people from different backgrounds within the organization. Training programmes should facilitate the understanding and appreciation of actual differences between people, which can apply in communicating and using language, in learning styles, in methods of dealing with conflict and in task and relationship orientation. Developing and integrating competencies and skills in culturally diverse employees is the next step presented by Moore (1999). It should create a mechanism whereby individuals learn to avoid damaging processes due to dysfunctional interpersonal conflict, miscommunication, higher levels of stress, slower decision-making and problems with group cohesiveness. Moore (1999) states that the development of important communication skills is needed in order to achieve effective integration of competencies. These skills are the ability to consider viewpoints that may differ from ones own, to communicate, to negotiate and to face difficulties appropriately. iii. Leadership According to Silverthorne (2005), leadership plays an important role in decision-making and organizational achievement. In order to develop effectively in a cross-competitive environment, leaders must understand and control their own behaviour, as this affects employees perceptions of leadership. They must also ensure that environmental issues are considered when choosing the best management style. However, appreciating the differences in leadership styles is not sufficient to be an effectual leader, as the necessary insight also varies with the environment. Silverthorne (2005) states that an effectual leader knows which leadership style to employ and when to employ it. There are four contrasting leadership styles: active or involved, supportive, participative and attainment-oriented. Active leaders tell subordinates what is required and put into effect individual systems to direct them; the supportive leader creates a friendly environment and is responsive to her subordinates needs; the participative leader engages them in the decision-making process; and the achievement-oriented leader applies high standards to the decision-making process and appears confident that subordinates will reach them. Silverthorne (2005) argues that an effective leaders choice of leadership style is based on the context of the task and the needs of the subordinates. iiii. Communication Silverthorne (2005) also suggests that one way to achieve better communication between individuals with different competitive backgrounds is to apply TNA to managers on how to work in a competitive environment. He proposes four ways of reducing cross-environment communication problems. First, managers should focus on differences in communication styles. Understanding that employees are different means describing a behaviour, rather than the individual. This will give the manager the time to understand the subject being discussed. Thirdly, the manager should attempt to understand the subject from the employees perspective. Seeing the employees point of view gives the manager an opportunity to better understand what the employee is trying to communicate. Finally, the manager must listen more openly than normal and engage in exercises to improve the communication process. 2.7 Management Training Many organizations today have training programmes for their employees but the reasons for conducting them vary widely. Some provide job orientation for new recruits; others training on new equipment for existing employees or strategic planning courses for managers. Successful managers need multi-skills training and detailed information about the organization. Training programmes for managers should cover different skills than those for employees; examples are functional, administrative, planning and leadership skills. Assessing changes in performance following training is complicated by the fact that while some of these skills can be easily observed in the short term, others will be apparent only from long-term changes in the performance of the manager, the department or the entire organisation. 2.7.1 Different types of training needs All employees should be aware of the types of management training their organization offers, because many will be planning to be line-managers in the future, so will require certain skills. McConnell (2003) lists twelve types of training which are very useful in ones current job and helpful for the future. These are now examined in turn. i. Group Training Group training involves three or more individuals who participate in a common learning activity, generally led by a group facilitator. ii. Coaching Coaching is one-on-one job training. Generally it includes demonstrations, lectures and observation of practice. iii. Mentoring This is a process in which experienced employees are assigned to assist newer employees through guidance. Sometimes it takes a formal approach; at others it is informal. It is also used to introduce employees to a companys culture and environment. iiii. Self-Paced Learning This is any learning activity in which the learner determines the speed at which the material is covered. Generally, it is an individualized form of instruction, but it can be used with groups, the speed being set either individually or by the group. V. E-Learning This is a term used to describe learning activities conducted from the users desktop via the Internet or e-mail. It is generally an individual activity. Vi. Computer-Assisted Instruction This is the delivery of training via a computer. Again it is generally individualized. It can include programmes on modelling, simulation, practice and knowledge. Vii. Distance Learning Training This describes instruction in which the teacher is geographically separated from the learner. Connection can be via satellite or phone line with the instruction delivered to a PC or to a room specially equipped with video or audio conferencing equipment. Viii. Self-Study Self-study refers to learning activities initiated and participated in by an individual. Programmed or computer-assisted instruction and reading assignments can all be self-study activities. Viiii. Simulations These are controlled and standardized representations of a job, activity or situation used as a basis for developing skills in dealing with the simulated situations. VV. Lectures These are structured oral presentations delivered for the transfer of information. VVi. Job Assignments Job assignments place an individual into an actual job, generally for a limited period of time, the primary goal being to learn all or part of the job. VVii. Job Rotation This is similar to job assignment but generally includes several assignments in a planned order or the exchange of jobs with another person. 2.7.2 Different levels of training needs The objective of a training needs analysis is the identification of the training required to meet the recognized needs. In point of fact, while these may be accepted or revised by the employees, a senior person may be assigned to decide what training is necessary. The person conducting the training or assessing the needs is not always the individual who develops or recommends the training. On the other hand, the most important step in TNA is to translate the recognized needs into objectives. Then individual objectives can be used to develop or choose a training approach at individual and organization level. Beside the types of training, McConnell (2003) specifies the levels of needs for individual and organization and the personnel who will conduct the training. i. Supervisors These are the people who manage the people being trained. ii. Human Resources These are the professionals in the human resources department. If training is a function of the HR department, it is treated separately. iii. Operating Department Employees These are the employees of the department for which an individual is to be trained. iiii. Training Department Personnel These are generally training professionals employed by the training department. Their strengths are their skills and knowledge of training techniques and procedures. The most common criticism of such people is that they lack specific job or operational knowledge. Some organizations assign their trainers to specific areas-sometimes even to temporary work in the operating departments-to overcome such weaknesses. V. Operating Department Personnel on Temporary Assignment to Training These are people who usually have excellent job knowledge but often lack training skills. Many organizations use this approach because it gives greater credibility to the training sessions, while the operating personnel on such an assignment benefit greatly from the experience and learning of training techniques. Vi. External Professionals These are usually training consultants, supplier employees, or academics. Generally, they are used when the required degree of knowledge or skill is not available within the organization. These people are usually excellent trainers, but they can be expensive to use. If they offer similar classes on a regular basis, consistency may be lost if the same external person does not conduct all classes. Vii. External Organizations Local schools and professional organizations often conduct registration programmes in general subjects. Knowing the types of training currently being used by an organization and who conducts each training type provides an initial indication of what can be done. However, in some cases the training will have to be designed and/or obtained elsewhere. 2.7.3 The Roles of HR, Trainers and Line-Managers The many roles within the training function can be analyzed and their strengths and weaknesses identified. The training function within an organization should have as part of its mission the meeting of the organizations requirements; its success at accomplishing that will be the basis for the analysis. HR people and line-managers in the training function should help the organization to improve and involve employees in training courses which could be helpful in enhancing their skills and hence their performance, so HR people and line-managers must undertake a number of tasks, summarised below. Training organization: the mission of the training function, its internal structure, and internal and external relationships. Training personnel: the selection, qualifications, and motivation of department employees. Employee training in the requirements of specific jobs or activities. Employee development training in the requirements of future jobs and broadening their abilities in their current posts. Remedial training, conducted to correct inadequate basic skills such as mathematics, reading and writing. Organizational development: improving communication and understanding throughout the organization in order to produce effective, functioning teams; establishing or changing to a desired culture; and responding to changing conditions. Internal and external communication of the training departments abilities, results, and offerings. Training facilities: the physical space and equipment allocated to conduct training. Identifying training needs: determining the training required by individual employees and the organization. Training design and development: creating, structuring, or obtaining a training programme to meet specific ob