Business Globalization-International Conferences on Business and Essay

Business Globalization-International Conferences on Business and Culture - Essay Example Correspondences issues in relationships of Japanese ladies and American men emerged in view of lacking cultural assimilation of Japanese ladies. The emergency in their relationships begins when their children are grown up and recognize themselves with American qualities and conduct standards. American and Japanese interchanges styles contrast fundamentally as Americans are increasingly clear though, Japanese lean toward understanding sentiments of one another. Along these lines, Americans are increasingly expressive while, Japanese don't communicate their emotions and they accept that other individual will comprehend sentiments from unpretentious things. In addition, huge social contrasts, strict contrasts and language hindrances additionally make issues in the relations between U.S. furthermore, Japanese relationships. In a board conversation on â€Å"Japanese Religion as Local Culture and its Global Relevance†, all board individuals shared their experience when they in Japan. In the conversation, the foundation of Association of Sacred destinations of Shinto and Buddhism in 2008 was considered as a helpful connection between the two conventions. The focal point of conversation was on parts of Japanese religion, Buddhism and Judaism in Japan. It has been featured by the entirety of the board individuals that Japanese have solid strict convictions and the vast majority of the occasions Americans get astounded about wonders which are normal things for Japanese. Like Japan other Asian nations are additionally nature-arranged and they accept that they gain from nature. Individuals in Japan accept that faculties are activities to be deferential and everything has an actual existence source. They have a solid conviction that God exists in the distance, however God is inside us and even all people are unique yet they have been made by an option that could be more noteworthy than that. In the conversation on Social Justice and Global Strategies, internationalization and globalization were examined. The primary focal point of conversation was on the

Strategies of Inventory Administration

Systems of Inventory Administration AQuestion 1: Answer: Presentation Stock administration is a trademark bit of your business that you surely would lean toward not to play with. The going with are some ordinary stock administration techniques passed on by relationship alongside their inventoryâ holding costs and potential advantages. Youd in all likelihood require a blend of different procedures for the best methodology for your business This stock administration strategy gets rid of the expense of holding inventoryâ all around. At the point when you have an outsourcing understanding, you can explicitly trade customer solicitations and shipment focal points to your creator or distributer, who at that point sends the product clearly to your customers. Thusly you dont need to keep items in stock , find the opportunity to get a good deal on direct inventoryâ costs, and bit of leeway from a positive salary cycle. A methodology like outsourcing where the two strategies preclude the prerequisite for appropriation focuses or work costs and threats required with inventoryâ dealing with, cross-docking is where moving toward semi-trailer trucks or railroad cars void materials explicitly onto outbound trucks, trailers, or rail automobiles with close to zero stock heaping in the center. (stock administration) Sorts of stock Management Each business incorporates of their inventoryâ of organization, the material that they offer available to be purchased and some other significant material that is realy significant for maintaining their business. For keeping up independent company there is less need of stock than huge business. Missing the mark on items suggests you will be not able to deal with request, while having unreasonably various product infers your money is tied up in inventoryâ that you can not offer. Crude Materials This kind of inventoryâ comprises any product used as a piece of the collecting method, for instance, segments use to amass a finished thing. Crude materials may comprise finished product or materials. For example, for a squeezed orange association, oranges, sugar and added substances are crude materials; while for a PC maker, chips, circuit sheets and diodes are crude materials. Stock things may be named crude materials if the affiliation has gotten them from an outside association, or on the off chance that they are used to make segments. Work-in-Process Work-in-process inventoryâ things are those materials and parts that are holding up to be made into something different. These may comprise mostly gathered things that are holding up to be done. Work-in-process inventoryâ things may comprise finished product that have not yet been stuffed and inspected, and likewise crude materials that have moved from ability to a preassembly territory. For example, in a squeezed orange association, the oranges may come into a limit zone, where they are crude items, yet once they have been moved out of the limit go and onto the successive development framework for crushing, they get the chance to be work-in-process stock . In a little association, work-in-process merchandise may be taken care of in a similar territory as crude materials and finished items. Completed Goods Completed goodsâ are any things that are set up to be moved out or sold explicitly to customers, including to wholesalers and retailers. Finished items may hold up in a limit zone or on a shop floor. If the proportion of inventoryâ of Finished products increment snappier that the proportion of crude items and work-in-process items, at that point creation may need to ease off until increasingly finished product are sold. In a couple of associations, stock are rejected in the finished items inventoryâ until they are sold. For example, in associations where items are made to arrange.(types-stock association) Requesting, holding, and need costs make up the three standard characterizations of stock related costs. These groupings extensively separate the a wide scope of inventoryâ costs that exist, and beneath we will distinguish and depict a couple of instances of the various sorts of cost in each class. (- stock requesting holding-and-deficiency costs) Requesting costs Requesting costs, alsoâ called arrangement costs, are essentially costs procured each time you present a solicitation. Delineations include: Administrative costs of planning purchase orders There are such a significant number of kind of administrative expenses, for instance, receipt getting ready, accounting, and correspondence costs. Cost of discovering suppliers and helping orders Costs spent on these will presumably conflicting, however they are crucial expenses for the business. Transportation costs The costs of moving the product to the dispersion place or store. These costs are profoundly factor across various businesses and things. Tolerating costs These incorporate costs of emptying products at the appropriation place, and looking into the product to guarantee they are the correct things and free of defectss. Cost of electronic data exchangeâ These are frameworks utilized by huge associations and especially retailers, which license mentioning process costs to be altogetherâ reduced. Holding costs As known called conveying costs, these are costs required with taking care of inventoryâ before it is sold. Inventoryâ financing costs This comprises everything related to the venture made in stock , including costs like enthusiasm on working capital. Financing costs can be perplexing depending upon the business. Opportunity cost of the money put into inventoryâ This is found by figuring in the lost alternatives of tying money up in stock , for instance, placing assets into term stores or normal resources. Extra room costs These are costs related to where the inventoryâ is put away, and will change by zone. There will be simply the expense of the storeroom, or lease portions on the off chance that it isn't guaranteed. By then there are office conservation costs like lighting, warming, and ventilation. Inventoryâ administrations costs This comprises the expense of the physical treatment of the items, and insurance, security, and IT gear, and applications if these are used. Costs related to inventoryâ control and cycle tallying are further cases. Inventoryâ chance costs A significant expense is shrinkage, which is the loss of things between purchasing from the supplier and last arrangement as a result of any number of reasons: theft, merchant blackmail, delivering botches, hurt in movement or limit. The other central case is outdated quality, which is the expense of items going past their use by dates, or for the most part getting the chance to be unmistakably out of date. (stock expenses) Deficiency Costs These costs, also got stock - out costs, happen when associations get the opportunity to be unmistakably out of inventoryâ for no good reason. Disturbed creation When the business incorporates conveying stock and also offering them, a lack will mean the business should pay for things like sit still masters and mechanical office overhead, despite when nothing is being made. Emergencyâ shipments For retailers, stock - outs could mean paying extra to get a shipment on schedule, or developing suppliers. Customer reliability and reputation These costs are hard to pinpoint, yet there are emphatically misfortunes to these when customers can not get their needed thing or organization on schedule. (stock expense) Monetary Order Quantity:â Economic request amount is the degree of stock that confines the level stock holding costs and mentioning costs. It is one of the most prepared conventional age arranging models. The structure used to choose this solicitation sum is in any case called Wilson EOQ Model or Wilson Formula. The model was delivered by F. W. Harris in 1913. However simultaneously R. H. Wilson, a specialist who associated it generally, is given affirmation for his exactly on schedule through and through examination of the model. EOQ is essentially an accounting condition that chooses when the blend of solicitation costs and stock passing on costs are the scarcest. The result is the most functional add up to mastermind. In procuring this is known as the solicitation sum, in gathering it is known as the age part gauge. The fundamental Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) formula is according to the accompanying: EOQ can be dictated by applying the accompanying generally utilized formula:(models-of-stock administration) Q = 2UxP/S Where: Q = Economic Ordering Quantity (EOQ) U = Quantity bought in a year or month P = Cost of putting in a request S = Annual or month to month cost of capacity of one unit known as conveying cost. Let us delineate this with a nonexistent model: Let us accept the accompanying information for a firm: Yearly necessities 800 units Requesting Cost (per request) Rs. 50 Conveying Cost (per unit) Rs. 100 Presently, utilizing the EOQ recipe, EOQ amount will be as per the following: EOQ = 2 x 800 x 50/2 = 80,000/2 = 40,000 = 200 Units Yearly USAGE Expressed in units, this is generally the least complex bit of the condition. Firm can simply use its guage yearly use data for computational purposes. Conveying COST Also called Holding Cost, conveying cost is the cost related with having stock accessible. It is fundamentally comprised of the costs related with the stock speculation and capacity cost. With the ultimate objective of the EOQ calculation, if the expense doesn't change dependent on the measure of stock accessible it should not be remembered for conveying cost. In the EOQ formula, passing on cost is addressed as the yearly expense per typical near to stock unit. Least Maximum Technique: The base most extreme structure is routinely used as a piece of relationship with manual stock control systems. The base sum notwithstanding the perfect package measure., an interest is begun when a withdrawal reduces the stock underneath the base l

Summer Reflections 2010 Post #6 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

Summer Reflections 2010 â€" Post #6 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog John Hughes just graduated from SIPA and during his second year of study worked in our office.   He is spending the better part of the summer in the office to assist with projects and help fill in for a staff member on maternity leave.   John is set up for a job in Washington, D.C. and will be moving there in August (our second largest alumni network in the world is in D.C if you were interested). I asked John to reflect a bit on his experience as a SIPA student and contribute to the blog over the summer.   This is his sixth entry. ___________________________ Many incoming students have called us recently to inquire about housing.   Thus, I thought I’d give my two cents on some housing options and what to consider when looking for a place. First of all, if you are lucky enough to get Columbia housing I’d say go ahead and take it.   I know many of you are hoping for this option, and just to be clear it is not easy to get.   SIPA gets a certain number of housing allocations from the University, and there are not nearly enough of these to go around.   Allocations are generally based on the distance a candidate lives from New York at the time of application, with those living further away given preference.   This is further broken down into three types of housing: single housing in which students are allocated a bedroom in a shared 2-4 bedroom apartment, couples/married housing in which a couple is given a studio or one-bedroom, and family housing for those students who are coming with children. Most of you will fit into the single student category.   If you do fall into this category and already live in the U.S. I would say it’s extremely unlikely that you will get a spot.   If you are living abroad you have a much better shot, though you still very well may not get it.   If you are a couple or have kids you have a much higher likelihood of getting a place, though this is still based on distance at time of application.   I was lucky enough to get a one-bedroom because I am married and lived in California at the time of application.   I was fully expecting not to get this housing, however, and was prepared to go on an apartment search in August if it didn’t work out. The bottom line is that most of you will not get Columbia housing.   Have no fear, however, as this is true every year and students always find places to live.   All it takes is a little effort on your part:   The neighborhoods around Columbia (Morningside Heights/Harlem/Hamilton Heights/Upper West Side) have thousands of apartments, and most of these neighborhoods (except for the Upper West Side) have relatively cheap rents compared to the rest of Manhattan.   The section of the Upper West Side north of 96th street (until 110th street where it becomes Morningside Heights/Harlem) usually has comparable rents to the places I mentioned further north, especially the further you live from Broadway.   Broadway itself, and the streets west of it towards the river, are just as expensive as the rest of the Upper West Side further south. Many students choose to live in the neighborhoods I mentioned above since they are either within walking distance or a short subway/bus ride to campus.   Such closeness has many advantages since students tend to spend quite a lot of time at SIPA (see my previous blog post) and it’s nice to not have to go far to get home after a long day.   I lived two blocks from school and really enjoyed the convenience, though the tradeoff was that Morningside Heights is not a very exciting place.   Nevertheless, all of the neighborhoods I’ve mentioned thus far have easy access to the rest of the city on the subway so they’re not so bad.   Expect to pay between $800-$1200 for a shared place in one of these neighborhoods. Some students at SIPA decide that being close to school is less important to them than living in an exciting neighborhood where they can fully enjoy New York.   These students live further downtown in Hell’s Kitchen, Chelsea, the west/central/east Village, Soho etc.   Though these neighborhoods certainly have much more to offer in terms of bars/restaurants etc., they are also significantly more expensive than the neighborhoods I mentioned before.   Some students are able to find shared apartments in these neighborhoods that are not much more expensive than the neighborhoods further north, but the tradeoff is that they generally get a shoebox-sized apartment. If you decide to live in one of these neighborhoods you should carefully consider transportation.   Living in a neighborhood on the west side of Manhattan will make commuting much easier and faster than living in a neighborhood on the east side (you can get from the West Village to Morningside Heights in 25 minutes door-to-door during rush hour).   That said, the east side has some cool spots that could make the extra 10-15 minutes worth it for you. Some students also decide to move to other parts of New York City.   Though I knew a couple people in Astoria, Queens (which is a nice spot if you don’t mind a 45 minute bus to school), the vast majority of these students move to the inner parts of Brooklyn.   Though rents in Brooklyn can be a bit cheaper than Manhattan, this isn’t really true for the good neighborhoods with easy subway access.   It’s true that these neighborhoods are still cheaper than luxury Manhattan places, but for your typical walk-up that a grad student is looking for the rent savings will be minimal.   However, there are many really great neighborhoods in the closer parts of Brooklyn and students who choose to live here do so because the neighborhoods actually feel like neighborhoods and are a bit more laid back than Manhattan. If you choose this route expect your commute to take 45 minutes to an hour, though this isn’t so bad if you’re the type of person who can get homework done on the train.   Others like the fact that their life down there is completely separate from their SIPA life, and it gives them a good escape.   If you do go for Brooklyn I would highly recommend finding a place that is within a few blocks of a subway stop or else your commute will be even longer. Regardless of where you decide to live, it’s a good idea to give yourself at least a couple weeks to find a place if you don’t get Columbia housing.   The New York rental market is very tight and can be cutthroat, so it’s a good idea to be somewhat aggressive in your search.   Most good places will rent within a few days of them being posted, so be prepared to take a place right away if you like it.   This means bringing a copy of your letter stating that you’ll be a student at Columbia (they usually ask for job proof but obviously as students you don’t have this) and your checkbook.   It’s also a good idea to have a bank statement and/or other proof that you are able to pay the rent (a copy of your financial aid statement showing that you’ll be receiving loans might work for this purpose though I’m not sure).   Make sure to look at a few places, but at the same time you should go for a place if you like it, even if it’s the first one you see. The best place to look for apartments in New York is on Craigslist: http://newyork.craigslist.org/cgi-bin/apartments.cgi It’s a good idea to look for no-fee apartments, since if you use a broker you’ll usually have to pay them 15% of the annual rent.   Also, if you do plan to live with roommates I highly recommend reaching out to other SIPA students.   Those of you starting in the Fall should have access to a Google Group for the Class of 2012 where you can post that you are looking for roommates.   Many students in my class did this and most found it fairly easy to link up with like-minded SIPA folks. Despite the seeming difficulty of finding a place, everybody I knew at SIPA found a good one.   People chose to live in different parts of the city for different reasons, but regardless of where they lived I don’t know anybody who lived in a bad place.   If you put in the effort you’ll find a good place, too.

Summer Reflections 2010 Post #6 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

Summer Reflections 2010 â€" Post #6 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog John Hughes just graduated from SIPA and during his second year of study worked in our office.   He is spending the better part of the summer in the office to assist with projects and help fill in for a staff member on maternity leave.   John is set up for a job in Washington, D.C. and will be moving there in August (our second largest alumni network in the world is in D.C if you were interested). I asked John to reflect a bit on his experience as a SIPA student and contribute to the blog over the summer.   This is his sixth entry. ___________________________ Many incoming students have called us recently to inquire about housing.   Thus, I thought I’d give my two cents on some housing options and what to consider when looking for a place. First of all, if you are lucky enough to get Columbia housing I’d say go ahead and take it.   I know many of you are hoping for this option, and just to be clear it is not easy to get.   SIPA gets a certain number of housing allocations from the University, and there are not nearly enough of these to go around.   Allocations are generally based on the distance a candidate lives from New York at the time of application, with those living further away given preference.   This is further broken down into three types of housing: single housing in which students are allocated a bedroom in a shared 2-4 bedroom apartment, couples/married housing in which a couple is given a studio or one-bedroom, and family housing for those students who are coming with children. Most of you will fit into the single student category.   If you do fall into this category and already live in the U.S. I would say it’s extremely unlikely that you will get a spot.   If you are living abroad you have a much better shot, though you still very well may not get it.   If you are a couple or have kids you have a much higher likelihood of getting a place, though this is still based on distance at time of application.   I was lucky enough to get a one-bedroom because I am married and lived in California at the time of application.   I was fully expecting not to get this housing, however, and was prepared to go on an apartment search in August if it didn’t work out. The bottom line is that most of you will not get Columbia housing.   Have no fear, however, as this is true every year and students always find places to live.   All it takes is a little effort on your part:   The neighborhoods around Columbia (Morningside Heights/Harlem/Hamilton Heights/Upper West Side) have thousands of apartments, and most of these neighborhoods (except for the Upper West Side) have relatively cheap rents compared to the rest of Manhattan.   The section of the Upper West Side north of 96th street (until 110th street where it becomes Morningside Heights/Harlem) usually has comparable rents to the places I mentioned further north, especially the further you live from Broadway.   Broadway itself, and the streets west of it towards the river, are just as expensive as the rest of the Upper West Side further south. Many students choose to live in the neighborhoods I mentioned above since they are either within walking distance or a short subway/bus ride to campus.   Such closeness has many advantages since students tend to spend quite a lot of time at SIPA (see my previous blog post) and it’s nice to not have to go far to get home after a long day.   I lived two blocks from school and really enjoyed the convenience, though the tradeoff was that Morningside Heights is not a very exciting place.   Nevertheless, all of the neighborhoods I’ve mentioned thus far have easy access to the rest of the city on the subway so they’re not so bad.   Expect to pay between $800-$1200 for a shared place in one of these neighborhoods. Some students at SIPA decide that being close to school is less important to them than living in an exciting neighborhood where they can fully enjoy New York.   These students live further downtown in Hell’s Kitchen, Chelsea, the west/central/east Village, Soho etc.   Though these neighborhoods certainly have much more to offer in terms of bars/restaurants etc., they are also significantly more expensive than the neighborhoods I mentioned before.   Some students are able to find shared apartments in these neighborhoods that are not much more expensive than the neighborhoods further north, but the tradeoff is that they generally get a shoebox-sized apartment. If you decide to live in one of these neighborhoods you should carefully consider transportation.   Living in a neighborhood on the west side of Manhattan will make commuting much easier and faster than living in a neighborhood on the east side (you can get from the West Village to Morningside Heights in 25 minutes door-to-door during rush hour).   That said, the east side has some cool spots that could make the extra 10-15 minutes worth it for you. Some students also decide to move to other parts of New York City.   Though I knew a couple people in Astoria, Queens (which is a nice spot if you don’t mind a 45 minute bus to school), the vast majority of these students move to the inner parts of Brooklyn.   Though rents in Brooklyn can be a bit cheaper than Manhattan, this isn’t really true for the good neighborhoods with easy subway access.   It’s true that these neighborhoods are still cheaper than luxury Manhattan places, but for your typical walk-up that a grad student is looking for the rent savings will be minimal.   However, there are many really great neighborhoods in the closer parts of Brooklyn and students who choose to live here do so because the neighborhoods actually feel like neighborhoods and are a bit more laid back than Manhattan. If you choose this route expect your commute to take 45 minutes to an hour, though this isn’t so bad if you’re the type of person who can get homework done on the train.   Others like the fact that their life down there is completely separate from their SIPA life, and it gives them a good escape.   If you do go for Brooklyn I would highly recommend finding a place that is within a few blocks of a subway stop or else your commute will be even longer. Regardless of where you decide to live, it’s a good idea to give yourself at least a couple weeks to find a place if you don’t get Columbia housing.   The New York rental market is very tight and can be cutthroat, so it’s a good idea to be somewhat aggressive in your search.   Most good places will rent within a few days of them being posted, so be prepared to take a place right away if you like it.   This means bringing a copy of your letter stating that you’ll be a student at Columbia (they usually ask for job proof but obviously as students you don’t have this) and your checkbook.   It’s also a good idea to have a bank statement and/or other proof that you are able to pay the rent (a copy of your financial aid statement showing that you’ll be receiving loans might work for this purpose though I’m not sure).   Make sure to look at a few places, but at the same time you should go for a place if you like it, even if it’s the first one you see. The best place to look for apartments in New York is on Craigslist: http://newyork.craigslist.org/cgi-bin/apartments.cgi It’s a good idea to look for no-fee apartments, since if you use a broker you’ll usually have to pay them 15% of the annual rent.   Also, if you do plan to live with roommates I highly recommend reaching out to other SIPA students.   Those of you starting in the Fall should have access to a Google Group for the Class of 2012 where you can post that you are looking for roommates.   Many students in my class did this and most found it fairly easy to link up with like-minded SIPA folks. Despite the seeming difficulty of finding a place, everybody I knew at SIPA found a good one.   People chose to live in different parts of the city for different reasons, but regardless of where they lived I don’t know anybody who lived in a bad place.   If you put in the effort you’ll find a good place, too.

The Ymca Of Greater Pittsburgh Essay - 927 Words

The YMCA of Greater Pittsburgh received a 1.5 million dollar grant from the Heinz Endowments (December of 2015) to re-purpose the Homewood Brushton YMCA into a Creative Youth Center. Presently, we have a youth program the Lighthouse Project, which is about nine years old and currently housed at Westinghouse High School. The YMCA Lighthouse Project is an afterschool program for teens that teaches leadership and career readiness through the media arts of film, photography, graphic design and music production. The students participate in workshops with a focus on photography, journalist, fashion design, visual arts, music production, dance, graphic design and the Bridge to College workshop. â€Å"With the repurpose of the YMCA the Lighthouse Project will move from its present location at Westinghouse High School. Starting with the 2016-2017 school year, the program will be relocated to the YMCA,† said Williams. The transformation will involve conference rooms, the Family Support Center and the multipurpose room. These rooms will be repurposed into a commercial kitchen and performance stage. When asked if the repurpose of these rooms would be enough to hold the anticipated student enrollment in the 2016-2017 program, Williams replied, â€Å"The program generally serves between 50 and 60 students per school year (October thru June); with the upcoming school year we plan to double that number.† The students will not be lumped into one common area, but move from module to moduleShow MoreRelatedMonsanto: Better Living Through Genetic Engineering96204 Words   |  385 Pagesdifferently. For instance, with deregulation of the airline industry in the United States, older, established airlines had a signiï ¬ cant decrease in proï ¬ tability, while many smaller airlines, such as Southwest Airlines, with lower cost structures and greater ï ¬â€šexibility, were able to aggressively enter new markets. Porter’s ï ¬ ve forces model is a useful tool for analysing the speciï ¬ c industry (see Chapter 2). Careful study of how the ï ¬ ve competitive forces (that i s, supplier power, buyer power, potential

Of Mice and Men Quiz Check Your Knowledge

Life, Death and Medical Critical Thinking Essay Samples

Life, Death and Medical Critical Thinking Essay Samples How to Get Started with Medical Critical Thinking Essay Samples? Creativity Critical thinking Critical analysis was defined as the procedure for carrying out objective analysis so as to think of judgement. Writing Peak was among the pioneers in the area of academic writing assistance. Thousand so new methods for creativity have been discovered along with the conventional ways. Creativity Creativity was defined as the practice of doing things by employing new approaches like invention and innovation. Feeling you're correcting negative features of self will enable you to restrict yourself and to truly feel disempowered. In spite of popular belief by a substantial part of students, critical essay writing isn't about criticizing or focusing on the negative component of analysis. You will write a better essay and cannot experience stress if you commence writing earlier than the previous night. Although, you'll be expressin g your opinions, make sure you'll be fair and well informed. What the thinker is trying to figure out. Let's take a good look at how deductive reasoning is utilized in the practice of planning and writing an essay. Critical reasoning is an excellent synonym since it implies careful, deliberate thought. You might write a good essay with respect to content, but in case you have grammar mistakes or your answers aren't relating to the questions, say farewell to your good grade. Describe why it's important to consider critically and creatively in similar scenarios. You have to reveal your critical thinking abilities and make judgments about the subject as you analyze a post, so you may produce clear opinion and conclusions. It is preferable to correctly utilize words that you know, than abuse words which you do not know, in an effort to sound smarter. To find out more about what things to anticipate from the study of medicine, have a look at our Study Medicine in america section. Then you'll have your map for writing and can begin with the initial portion of your essay. An essential essay is an analysis of any bit of text. A comparative essay is among the few requirements for students to finish a training course. Also, you ought to be sure about your sources. Our typical essay examples are free while our custom essays can be obtained at reasonable rates. The above is of fantastic significance, especially to students who think that critical essays should concentrate on the negative facets of a subject. When you're writing an essay for the very first time, you will need to find some examples to comprehend the method by which the essay should examine the finished form. After that, describe how are you going to deal with the subject of your paper. Ways to get Started The very first step towards writing a high quality research paper is to organize what's to be written. The more information you've got on your paper, the ideal quality you'll be able to develop while writing. Your paper will begin with the topic. Analytical Part of critical thinking is the capability to carefully examine something, whether it's an issue, a set of information, or a text. Our intent is to deliver a professional, caring service which focuses on serving patients with empathy and an abundance of knowledge, employing the most current in dental technology. Specific definitions vary and all of them include a problem solving procedure that puts identifying people's needs first utilizing an assortment of tools to achieve effects. You can get the crucial knowledge in numerous ways. What You Need to Do About Medical Critical Thinking Essay Samples Critical thinking is oft en utilized in nursing. You might also have to participate in critical thinking with a group. So, whether or not you're a public health nurse or a nurse practitioner, you must always bear in mind the value of critical thinking in the nursing field. Organizing thoughts can take some time, but should you already have a great deal of things to write, then it would be better to write all of them down and arrange them later on in the last draft.

Marketing strategy assignment free essay sample

Introduction to the Assignment: Please read all instructions and information carefully. You are required to submit your work under the University Infringement of Assessment Regulations. Your assignment must be submitted to your Study Centre in hard copy with an accurately and clearly completed Assignment Cover Sheet, and an electronic copy on CD in an envelope [hole punched or safely secured into your plastic file or assignment wallet]. Please do not include a plastic CD case/box and remember to write your student code and assignment code clearly onto the disc and envelope. You will need to achieve an overall mark of 40% in order to successfully complete this module. Sudipta Das Module Leader MKT 306 2|Page Assignment: Mode of Assessment: Individual Report Weighting: 100% Module Assessor: Sudipta Das Issue Date: w/c 11th February 2014 Submission Date: 7th April 2014 Word Count: 3500 words (+/- 10%) Assignment Brief: The task is divided into two parts (Part 1 Part 2) and candidates are expected to address both. Your task is to identify a Branded Mobile Phone Network provider**; and then analyse, evaluate and prepare an individual report (3500 words +/- 10%) addressing the following issues†¦ 3|Page ? Part 1: ? Using appropriate sources, identify their existing marketing strategy and value creation process [Weightage 30%] ? Research, analyse and evaluate the key strengths and weaknesses of their existing marketing strategy [Weightage 30%] ? Part 2: ? Using appropriate theories (and real-life/academic case studies) suggest alternative strategic approach for increasing their market share, profitability, and long term value creation [Weightage 40%] Candidates are encouraged to evaluate, analyse, and recommend marketing strategies for their chosen company within a specific context of their choice (i. e. UK, Germany, Malaysia, Trinidad etc. ). For the purpose of this assessment students need to focus on marketing strategies been used mainly at the B2C level. Your arguments, findings and recommendations should be supported by theories, facts and figures published within academic books, journal articles, recognised business magazines and market intelligence reports. ** Your chosen mobile phone network provider should be branded, nationally recognised (at least), and it MUST have a website. Example: Vodafone, O2, Three, EE, Virgin etc. N. B. Please note the maximum word count excludes Appendix and References. 4|Page Submission Policies: 1. You are required to submit your work within the bounds of the University Infringement of Assessment Regulations. 2. Your assignment must be submitted to your Study Centre in hard copy with an accurately and clearly completed Assignment Cover Sheet and an electronic copy on CD put into an envelope, hole punched or safely secured into your plastic file or assignment wallet. 3. Please do not include the plastic CD case/box and remember to write your student code and assignment code clearly onto the disc and envelope. 4. All works submitted MUST be original. If under any circumstances a student is found to be violating any of the Academic Integrity rules, the university deserves the right to take legal and disciplinary actions against the individual. 5|Page Assignment Structure: This is an individual assignment as a single report in two parts. Candidates are encouraged to be creative with their analysis and recommendations by using theories covered in the class. The following structure is for illustration purpose only, candidates are highly encouraged to design their own report structure answering the questions given in PART 1 2. ? Title page ? Executive Summary ? Table of contents ? Introduction ? Methodology ? Situational Analysis – current strategies ? Segmentation Targeting Positioning (STP) ? Differential advantages/weaknesses (USP) (SWOT) (PESTLE) ? Recommended objectives and goals (SMART) ? Recommended Marketing Strategies and Programmes ? Conclusion ? Bibliography (with references) ? An electronic copy on CD ? A receipt from TurnItIn © Please remember that this is only a rough guideline and candidates are encouraged to structure their report according to their preference. 6|Page Detailed Explanation of Individual Sections: You’re aiming for a 3500 word report following the given structure†¦ Title: In a short report this may simply be the front cover. In a long one it could also include Terms of Reference, Table of Contents and so on. Executive Summary: Give a clear and very concise account of the main points, main conclusions and main recommendations. Keep it very short, about a page or a few % of the total length. Some people, especially senior managers, may not read anything else so write as if it were a short stand-alone document. It isn’t but for some people it might as well be. Keep it brief and free from jargon so that anyone can understand it and get the main points. WRITE IT LAST, but do not copy and paste from the report itself; that rarely works well. Introduction: This is the first part of the report proper. Use it to paint the background to ‘the problem’ and to show the reader why the report is important to them. Give your terms of reference (if not in the Title Section) and explain how the details that follow are arranged. Write it in plain English. Current Situation: This is where you report the facts as they are now. It will probably have several sections or sub-sections each with its own subtitle. It is unique to your report and will describe what you discovered about ‘the problem’. Take care to answer the exact question which has been set – if you write about retail outlets when the question is about a specific brand you will lose valuable marks and possibly fail. If in any doubt ask your tutor! These sections are most likely to be read by experts so you can use some appropriate jargon but explain it as you introduce it. You are supposed to be demonstrating your understanding of the topic so this is a great opportunity to arrange the information logically, putting things in order of priority most important first. In fact, follow that advice in every section of your report. You may choose to include a Discussion in which you explain the significance of your findings but remember to use a report style structure throughout your work. 7|Page Recommendations: This is the heart of your report. What do you suggest should be done? Don’t be shy; you did the work so state your recommendations in order of priority, and in plain English. Again it will probably have several sections or subsections each with its own subtitle Conclusions: Present the logical conclusions of your investigation of ‘the problem’. Bring it all together and maybe offer options for the way forward. Many people will read this section. Write it in plain English. If you have included a discussion then this section may be quite short. Appendices: Put the heavy details here, the information that only specialists are likely to want to see. As a guide, if some detail is essential to your argument then include it in the main body, if it merely supports the argument then it could go in an appendix. Make sure you signpost this information in the main body of your report. 8|Page Marking Scheme 1st (70+%) An excellent assignment. It demonstrates a high level of understanding of the learning outcomes. The report provides evidence of significant understanding of marketing strategy theory/techniques and its application to the selected organisation. All decisions are logical, coherent, fully justified, explained succinctly and coherently, but also demonstrates a high level of insight and originality. The presentation is of a very high standard demonstrating a professional approach which is generally free of errors. 2:1 (60-69%) A very good assignment. It demonstrates a reasonably high level of understanding of the learning outcomes. The assignment provides evidence of understanding of marketing strategy theory/techniques and its application to the selected organisation. All decisions are logical, justified and explained however are less strong in terms of insight and originality. The presentation is of a high standard and predominantly free from errors. 2. 2 (50-59%) A good assignment. It demonstrates a sound understanding of the learning outcomes. The report provides evidence of understanding of marketing strategy theory/techniques and its application to the selected organisation, though this may be somewhat limited. Most decisions are appropriate however are less strong in terms of insight, logic and originality. The presentation is adequate. 3rd (40-49%) A satisfactory assignment. It demonstrates an understanding of the learning outcomes. The report provides evidence of understanding of marketing strategy theory/techniques and its application to the selected organisation, although this is limited. Decisions are appropriate however lack coherence, insight and logic. The presentation is adequate, but lacks cohesion. 9|Page Grade F (

Tibet Essays (1321 words) - Tibet, Tibet Autonomous Region, Lhasa

Tibet China Tibet, also known as TAR, is a democratic region in China that is very poor, and is mainly inhabited by Buddhists. Throughout its long history, Tibet at times has governed itself as an independent state and at other times has had various levels of association with China. Whatever China 's involvement in Tibetan affairs, Tibet's internal government was for centuries a theocracy, under the leadership of Buddhist lamas, or monks. In 1959 the Dalai Lama fled to India during a Tibetan revolt against Chinese control in the region. China then took complete control of Tibet, installing a sympathetic Tibetan ruler and, in 1965, replacing with a Communist administration (Encarta 1). The TAR covers an area of about 472,000 square miles. It is bounded on the north by Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region and Qinghai Province; on the east by Sichuan and Yunnan provinces; on the south by Myanmar (formally known as Burma), India, Bhutan, and Nepal; and on the west by India. Lhasa is the region's capital and largest city (Schaller 72). With an average elevation of more than 12,000 feet, Tibet is the highest region on earth, and for this reason, it is sometimes called the Roof of the World. Most of the people in Tibet live at elevations ranging from 3,900 feet to 16,700 feet. Tibet is also one of the world's most isolated regions, surrounded by the Himalayas on the south, the Karakorum Range on the west, and the Kunlun Mountains on the north (Encarta 1). The southern part of Tibet is situated entirely within the Himalayas, and many of the world's highest summits are located in the Himalayan chain, which extends along Tibet's southern frontier. Among the peaks are Mount Everest(29,028 feet), the world's largest mountain; Namcha Barwa(25,445 feet); and Gurla Mandhata(25,354 feet). The Kailas Range, a chain of the Himalayas, lies parallel to and north of the main chain and has peaks of up to 22,000 feet. Between the Kailas Range and the main chain is a river valley that extends about 600 miles. The Brahmaputra River (known in Tibet as the Yarlung Zangbo) flows from west to east through most of this valley (Encarta 1). The mountains in Tibet form Asia's principal watershed, or dividing line, between westward-flowing and eastward-flowing streams, and Tibet is the source of the continent's major rivers. The Brahmaputra is Tibet's most important river. The Indus, Ganges, and Sutlej rivers have their headwaters in western Tibet. Many of Tibet's rivers have potential for hydroelectric development (Encarta 1). Vegetation on the Tibetan Plateau is extremely sparse, consisting mainly of grasses and shrubs. Scattered wooded areas occur in extreme west and east. Most vegetation, however, is concentrated in Brahmaputra, Indus, and Sutlej river valleys. These areas support most species of trees, including conifers, oaks, cypresses, poplars, and maples. Apple, peach, pear, and apricot trees are cultivated in the valleys (Encarta 1). Tibet is home to a variety of wildlife. Musk deer, wild sheep, wild goats, wild donkeys, yaks, and Tibetan antelope are common in mountainous areas. Other large mammals include leopards, tigers, bears, wolves, foxes, and monkeys. Bird life includes geese, gulls, teal, and other species of waterfowl, and also pheasants and sand grouse (Encarta 1). Tibet has a dry, cold climate with an average annual temperature of 34 degrees Fahrenheit. It is very bitter in Tibet in the winter (Harrer 39). Temperatures in the mountains and plateaus are especially cold, and strong winds are common year round. The river valleys experience a more moderate climate. Lhasa and central Tibet have an average temperature of 32 degrees Fahrenheit in December and an average of 60 degrees Fahrenheit in June. The daily temperature range is great. On a typical summer day, the temperature can rise from 37 degrees Fahrenheit before sunrise to 81 degrees Fahrenheit before midday. In general, temperatures in Tibet frequently drop suddenly after sunset. The average annual precipitation is 15 inches (Encarta 2). The Tibet pamphlet states that Tibet is rich in mineral resources, although few have been exploited due to inaccessibility, a lack of industrial capacity, and Buddhist admonitions against disturbing the earth for fear of harming living creatures. Gold is found in many areas, and significant deposits of iron ore, coal, salt, and borax are also present. Other known resources include oil shale, manganese, lead, zinc, quartz, and graphite (14). Since 1959 the Chinese government has capitalized on some of Tibet's resources by mining chromite, tinkalite, and boromagnesite; constructing hydroelectric and geothermal plants; and logging timber. In eastern Tibet, serious environmental concerns have been raised over the extent of

galileo1 essays

galileo1 essays Galileo Galilei was born in Pisa Italy on February 15, 1564. Later in the 1570's his father, Vincenzo Galileo moved his family to the near by city of Florence. He was the oldest of four children , and as a child he was the most likely inclined to be the smarter of the family. It was here that Galileo's formal education began at a school in a near by monastery. This school was taught by monks, and for a while it was belied that Galileo would grow up to become a member of the religious orders. At the school he studied Greek, Latin and logic. since his father was a musician, he received an introduction and a musical background. Then finally in 1581 he was accepted and entered the University of Pisa, where he was studying medicine. Then after some time passed he grew bored of medicine. He found a deep interest in the field of mathematics. It seemed that all of his time was spent studying mathematics. When he turned twenty-one he was forced to leave the university because of a lack of int erest, ending his formal education. After he left all his time was spent he continued his research of mathematics. While he was studying he became an acquaintance Marchese de Monte. After Marchese de monte saw Galileo's work he grew interested in him. Shortly afterward he was taken in by Marchese to assist him in his research. It was as if Galileo was his apprentice. They both worked together to formulate the Treatise on the Centers of Gravity. It was this paper that they wrote which first made Galileo's presence felt in the world of science. Marchese helped him to obtain a position as a professor at the University of Pisa. There he spent the next two years teaching. He was forced to leave because other professors and students themselves considered his teachings to be radical and extreme. After he was forced to leave he headed back home to spend time with his family. A short while after he arrived to Florence his father passed away. He was forced to ...

Existentialism and Marxism Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Existentialism and Marxism Paper - Essay Example This notion swept the world through a phase of political change that evolved generation after generation. There was also the concept of Existentialism that also spread through Latin America in a major manner. This concept was unique in that it stressed the significance of experience as compared to notions that come from other people’s views. This means that it identifies an individual to be a free being not to follow various factors from others. Many philosophers had different notions on the two different philosophies and the comparison of their views goes deep. Romero Francisco in Theory of a Man displays his vast and widespread support of the Existentialism notion. In this book, he argues deeply stating that the running of the society through material ideology is nothing but a waste of time due to the manner through which the society has progressed through the ages (Romero 134). The author states very clearly that he very much supports the effort and the changes observed in the behavioral sciences and that they have hopes in the future but rather discredits the pace through which they have had in the past days. Romero states that in Latin America, people were rather confused on the way to which they should follow in society and thus many of them did not have a sound decision but rather followed the mass (Romero 142). He states this to be the reason unto why societal progress has been very slow from those days, thus Existentialism credited, and the entire disregard pointed towards Marxism. He also goes ahead to state that the weakness of the human being is what made him believe in culture rather the scientific revolution of the age. He states that with the stand that he takes on the issue, he has no offence towards reductionism and that it is a concept feared only by those with developmental fear. A writer that is clearly against this notion is Enrique Dussel’s Philosophy of Liberation. In this book, Enrique goes a long way in explaining the mann er in which the Latin Americans were represented or rather took up Marxism and states that this was a rather conscious decision for them (Dussel 67). In the book, he majorly focuses on issues relating to Ethics and politics. Enrique states that human beings in the era needed a political scope of the world and notes a sociological view because understanding the society was not just enough. Enrique claims that for one to concentrate on the rather large Latin American society at the time, the basic philosophy to understand is that on politics. Enrique states that no society can run without the basic unit that is a government. It is due to this that he states that the formation of a government was important. It is from this governing body that unity was found to develop and as a single unit, there was the ability to move forward with decisions that are more informed rather than having an individual making a single decision (Dussel 154). This is because it would lead to confusion with on e another constantly ending in feuds and thus the importance of the Marxism movement in Latin America. Francisco Milro Quesda in Without Theory goes a long way in explaining the various concepts that show the reason as to why the Existentialism notion was rather important in the Latin American society. He states that many of the human philosophies going around are baseless and are bound to fail because they base the human experience in a manner that the issues that they faced were rather

Dystopia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Dystopia - Essay Example In this urbanized society of chaos, fear is used as a way of coercing the collective will of its citizenry. Some of these fears include globalization, fear of aliens (earthly and otherwise), fear of immigrants, and a fear of loss of cultural identity. Other elements that contribute to the dystopic state are: widespread acts of violence within the working classes, and a dummy government that is utterly incapable of restoring any law and order. The escalating anarchy is related to the densely populated urban settings, the predominant of which is Los Angeles. The above mentioned characteristics of urban life in 2019 America may not have all elements of a dystopian state manifest in it. But, there is enough chaos, anarchy, disorder and violence to classify this environment s a dystopian one. On the other hand, the dystopia depicted in the movie Brazil is not so much an anarchic one as it a totalitarian one. It has resonances with the George Orwell’s dystopia of 1984 – an impotent bureaucracy, prompt action against dissenters and a highly commercialized culture where elevated human values are of no positive consequence. To top this state of civil decay, the totalitarian government is also inhuman and inefficient. The people feel hopeless and have no option other than subordinating themselves for the interests of the state. The constant surveillance of people keeps the whole society on an edge, making violent civil outbreaks a frequent occurrence. The violations against basic rights are so profound that protestation as a concept does not even arises among the people. In both the cases of fiction, the natural conditions for a psychologically healthy living are not provided to the people by the state. Hence, they resort to violent and unethical ways of finding some respite. In both the movies, terrorism is shown as a ever growing phenomenon. More disturbingly, its prevalence is so profound that the people have

Training Needs Theories and Principles

Training Needs Theories and Principles Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.1 Introduction Training has become a key focus for many organizations wishing to increase their capability, to pursue their strategy and to achieve their goals. It has a great impact not only on efficiency and organizational performance, but also on employees behaviour within the organization. Flexible training programmes may also help an organization to be more responsive to changes in its environment. Therefore, the first objective of this chapter is to explore the meaning of training and of training needs, while the second is to examine the theories dealing with these concepts. It then turns more specifically to an exploration of literature examining training needs in police organizations. 2.2 Developing Countries According to Kinsey (1988), developing country is a term used to describe countries outside the so-called Western bloc of technically advanced nations (North America, Western Europe, Japan, Australia and New Zealand) and the communist bloc. However, due to the rapid economic development in some countries (NICs) and the political and economic disturbances in the communist bloc which have resulted in dramatic changes during the last two decades, the above definition must be amended. Other terms which have been used to designate these countries include industrializing, less-developed and underdeveloped. Each tends to have certain connotations, some being more complementary than others, and some gaining popularity while others disappear. Whatever term is used, these countries are distinguished by widespread poverty. Beside this basic characteristic, Kinsey (1988) describes developing countries as having certain similarities, including low income per capita and per worker, small industria l sectors, few economies of scale, primitive technology, lack of specialization, low capital per worker, small savings per head for the bulk of the population, lack of enterprise, inadequate physical and social infrastructure, low volume of international trade per head and low efficiency. The question is: how could developing countries influence our country in management training? 2.3 Organizational Characteristics Organizations may be characterized in many different ways, depending on the reason for the classification. For the purposes of the present research, the characteristics of the Dubai Police must be examined in relation to the need for training; several authors have suggested that organization size, type of ownership and industrial sector are the main variables affecting the management of training needs (Abdalla and AlHomud, 1995). Alternatively, Wright and Geory (1992) connect training needs with management strategy, organizational structure and corporate culture. In theory, organizations can be characterized in many ways, but there is general agreement that the size of the organization is of prime importance, followed by structure, strategy (e.g. short or long term), technology use, environment and organisational culture. These are the theoretical concepts which will be examined in this study as quantifiable conditions and variables in the management of the Dubai Police. Definitions of Training Training is a very important process in any organization, allowing it to develop its employees skills and improve their performance at work. This section considers the definitions of training suggested by a number of authors. Thus, training can be described as a perfect way to learn a job or to develop employees skills. The organization of individual skills is a significant characteristic of business responsibility today, and employee motivation potentially grows in the process (Noe, 1999). The profit from employee development extends further than the concrete skills gained and their effect on an individuals efficiency (Benson, 2002). Among the many important definitions of training, the following selection is organised chronologically for convenience. Training has historical definitions; for example, Schuler and MacMillan (1984) defined it as part of human resource management (HRM) practice which has the potential to contribute to gains in competitive advantage. But this definition was incomplete because in 1984 there was a lack of information on HRM, which was still a new concept for many organizations. There was also a focus on competitive advantage among organizations, ignoring employee development and direct benefit to the organizations business. Rainbird and Heyes (1994) then defined training as employee development via engaging employees in a commitment to the organization. But this definition only involved employees in commitment and did not state how they were to be developed at work, so Heyes and Stuart (1996) refined this definition by adding that training is a development process which evolves through strategic stages. This definition indicates that development in any organization, whether short or long term, involves organizational commitment. Buckely and Caple (1995) defined training as a strategy to develop employees in skills, knowledge and attitude through a learning experience to achieve effective performance in a range of activities. Again, this definition was subject to important refinements, when Montesino (2002) pointed out that many factors may affect the effectiveness of training, including individual employees behaviour, the training programme, the local environment and the amount of support from each trainees immediate supervisor. Earlier, when Smith and Hayton (1999) defined training, they also attempted to show how certain factors impact on training needs and the decision to train employees. First, employee performance is very important and should be improved. Secondly, improvement is needed in the flexibility and adaptability of employees. Finally, training always needs new technology and investment in training needs to achieve high performance in an organization. This definition indicates the importance of high performance for training decisions, of changing the roles within the organization to increase flexibility and adaptability at work and of using new technology to achieve high performance. The authors also claim that it is a more sophisticated system of human resources management. According to Sparrow (1998), training can be managed to elicit the desired attitudes and behaviours in employees and to enhance involvement, motivation and organizational commitment. The main point of this definition is to motivate and involve employees in organizational commitment; the result could be to change employees behaviour, but these processes are controlled by the organization. Bartlett (2001) adds to this perspective by noting that there are many ways to motivate employees, the best being to improve access to training and the motivation to learn from training, as well as emphasising the perceived benefits of training. This definition shows the importance of motivating employees in training programmes and the benefit to be gained from supervisory support for training within the organization. Finally, Palo and Padhi (2003) define training as the process of developing skills, updating knowledge, changing employees behaviour and attitudes in order to improve their performance and abilities and so to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of the organization. 2.5 Training Theories 2.5.1 Training and Behaviour Theories Luthans (1998) considers that training can help organisations to change employees behaviour and that one technique of behaviour modification, encouraging desired behaviours and discouraging unwanted ones, is operant conditioning. Such behaviourist techniques were first used for the treatment of mental disorders and phobias, in psychiatric rehabilitation and in recovery from accident and trauma. Applications have since been extended to organisational settings. As developed by Fred Luthans (Luthans and Kreitner, 1985; Luthans et al., 1998), organisational behaviour modification theory has five mains steps. The first step is to identify the critical, observable and measurable performance-related behaviours to be encouraged. The second is to measure the current frequency of those behaviours, to provide a baseline against which to measure improvement. Next, the triggers or antecedents for those behaviours are identified, as are their consequences, positive, neutral and negative. The fourth step is to develop an intervention strategy to strengthen desired behaviours and weaken dysfunctional behaviours through the use of positive reinforcement (money, recognition) and corrective feedback, noting that punishment may be necessary, for example to inhibit unsafe behaviour. Finally, there is a systematic evaluation of the effectiveness of the approach in changing behaviour and improving performance over the baseline. Training can appear particularly attractive to managers, who are often in ideal positions to manipulate the reinforcement of certain employee behaviours. They also tend to find this approach attractive because it argues that what has to be changed is behaviour, and that to achieve this one needs to know very little about the complex internal workings of the people concerned. Desirable workplace behaviours include speaking courteously to customers, attending training to develop new skills and being helpful to colleagues. Undesirable ones include lateness, the production of poor quality items and being uncooperative. Training should eliminate undesired behaviour and increase the frequency of desired work behaviour. Suppose a manager wants more work assignments completed on time and fewer submitted beyond deadline. The behaviour modification options are summarized in Table 2.5.1. Luthans (1998) gives some ideas for improving performance through training, which failed to work. But Luthans argues that behaviour modification should be designed to suit organisational applications. Firstly, training should be applied to clearly identifiable and observable behaviours, such as timekeeping, carrying out checks and repairs, and the use of particular work methods. Secondly, to change organisational behaviour there should be a good strategy of rewards which are contingent on the performance of the desirable behaviours. Thirdly, training should focus on positive reinforcement, which can take a number of forms, from the praise of a superior to cash prizes, food or clothing. Finally, training can lead to sustained modification of behaviour only if positive reinforcement is continued (albeit intermittently). Training and Motivation Theories Smith and Hayton (1999) identify the following theories, which mention the role of training in organizations. i. Human capital theory This theory focuses on training in terms of economic investment. Human capital theory sees training as improving efficiency (Becker, 1964; Mincer, 1974; Strober, 1990). It is concerned with developing ideal training conditions. In the 1980s neo-human capital theory stated that organizations should train their employees consecutively to develop the flexibility and suppleness of the workforce and their receptiveness to modernisation (Bartel and Lichtenberg, 1987). ii. Human resource management theory This theory concerns the commitment of employees to the organization and views training and employee development as a means of engaging it (Rainbird, 1994; Heyes and Stuart, 1996). The early formulation of a hypothetical structure for HRM came from the Harvard Business School in the early 1980s (Beer et al., 1984). Training is seen as a strategy for managing the human resource flow of a venture which, with other human resource policies, creates commitment, competence, congruence and cost-effectiveness. iii. Training and high performance theory This is among the most widely adopted theories in organizations in Britain and the USA. It concerns the skills trajectory and proposes a distinction between those occupations which are becoming increasingly skilful and others which are deskilling over time (Gallie and White, 1993; Cappelli, 1993). Studies of high-performance employment practices and HRM strategies have resulted in the concept of human resources bundles (MacDuffie, 1995; Dyer and Reeves, 1995) which highlight the significance of implementing a number of HRM practices collectively in bundles in order to enhance performance. Training is always cited as a critical measure within the set. Training Needs Analysis Training needs analysis (TNA) is a very important stage in the methodical training cycle of design, delivery and evaluation. The purpose of TNA is to take account of unusual meanings and perspectives depending upon a variety of actors in the process, avoiding misunderstandings about prospects and what can be achieved. In addition, external trainers and consultants are able to acknowledge the importance of a challenge when they rely upon TNA which has been conducted prior to their involvement with an organization. For instance, the excellence of feedback provided by the TNA process might differ significantly, from a very detailed search to a cheap and cheerful canvassing of opinions about what is needed. In addition to the challenges noted above, there are considerations about whose benefit is served: Is the training compulsory? Does it represent the needs of individual people, their managers, the organization, etc? 2.6.1 Definition of Training Needs Analysis Williamson (1993) defines TNA as a systematic approach to determining the real training needs which exist within an organization or department. This indicates that TNA involves collecting information, for example by examining the training programmes of different organizations. A number of managers will refer to the total procedure of identifying the essential training needs, after which the next step is to analyze and address them by the best available method. The pure understanding of the term describes the last procedure simply. Although understanding can differ, it is significant that there is supposed to be constancy of practice within any organization and all employees are assumed to be completely conscious of the sense of local terminology in this field. The term training need can be difficult to define in practice, with serious consequences. On other hand, there are many authors who have defined training needs analysis as the examination or diagnostic portion of the training system. In addition, it seeks to determine whether there exists a case of supposed performance deficiency in many organizations (Camp et al., 1986). This view applies to TNA. That is to say, needs evaluation in a training needs analysis is, in truth, a diagnostic attempt, rather than an effort to identify an apparently deficient performance, because TNA does not have direct access to employees performance. Conversely, Goldstein (1986) defines TNA as an attempt to analyze and diagnose an organization, task or individual, to decide if a cure is required and if so, which is the most likely to produce the desired results. Once more, TNA is seen as a diagnostic process at an organizational level. 2.6.2 Approaches to TNA One of the earliest writers on TNA was Boydell (1976), who planned a methodical approach to training needs that had its roots in analyzing supplies using a method based on organizational objectives. For Boydell (1976, p. 4), A training need exists when the application of systematic training will serve to overcome a particular weakness. He also argues that training needs must be identified before training begins. A similar perspective is presented by Bartram and Gibson (1994, p. 3): Analyzing training needs provides a focus and direction for the investment an organization has to make in its people. Likewise, Bee and Bee (2003) assert that organizations needs are the drivers for training solutions to close any performance gap. Two supporting considerations which influence TNA are also noted by Reay (1994). Firstly, establishing who has ownership of the TNA is likely to determine whether the findings are ignored or implemented. Secondly, the person who really pays for it will point to t he real employees and this is usually senior management. On the other hand, this methodical approach to TNA tends to adopt organizational perspectives. Reid and Barrington (1999) accept these perspectives, but warn that the needs may sometimes conflict, e.g. long-term development for an individual and lack of support opportunities might contradict each other. Similarly, Sloman (1994, p. 24) notes that in the training sphere there can be a singular divergence of interests between the organization and the individual. This viewpoint is shared by Palmer (2006), who warns against assessing training needs solely from the viewpoint of the organization. Many individual employees correctly follow their own training and development agendas and strategies. There are also sound business and motivational reasons for organizations to help employees to complete their self-development needs. Learning and development are continuing and practical (Sloman, 2003). They are supposed not to have to wait for business needs and training objectives to be set before embarking on a programme. Therefore, individuals need to take more responsibility for their own learning, rather than waiting for the organization to lead them. 2.6.3 Important TNA Factors in a Changing Competitive Environment There are important factors which affect TNA in a competitive environment for any organization and which a professional approach to change requires those responsible to consider. These are now examined in turn. i. Cross-competitive environment The abolition of collective differences in vocational results can be maintained by training programmes for diverse employees in a competitive environment, which can produce admiration for individual differences in attitudes, values and behaviours, according to DNetto and Sohal (1999), who recommend certain practices in the field of training. These include identifying exact training needs which are connected to the organizations goals and objectives; assessing individual training needs to facilitate a contribution within the training programme; developing individual annual training strategies which take account of knowledge, operational and interpersonal skills, attitudes to the job and technological skills training; evaluating literacy, language and numeracy to assess the ability to undergo training; connecting training to rewards, project agreements, development procedures and pay scales; and identifying the complementary skills of employees through a review process. ii. Diversity Moore (1999) suggests that a diversity needs analysis is required for the effective integration of diverse group members. Two contrasting approaches to diversity of background are to ensure that the organization is diversity blind or to provide a diversity-negative environment. According to Moore (1999), an important starting point in an environment of diversity in TNA is awareness of different challenges faced by people from different backgrounds within the organization. Training programmes should facilitate the understanding and appreciation of actual differences between people, which can apply in communicating and using language, in learning styles, in methods of dealing with conflict and in task and relationship orientation. Developing and integrating competencies and skills in culturally diverse employees is the next step presented by Moore (1999). It should create a mechanism whereby individuals learn to avoid damaging processes due to dysfunctional interpersonal conflict, miscommunication, higher levels of stress, slower decision-making and problems with group cohesiveness. Moore (1999) states that the development of important communication skills is needed in order to achieve effective integration of competencies. These skills are the ability to consider viewpoints that may differ from ones own, to communicate, to negotiate and to face difficulties appropriately. iii. Leadership According to Silverthorne (2005), leadership plays an important role in decision-making and organizational achievement. In order to develop effectively in a cross-competitive environment, leaders must understand and control their own behaviour, as this affects employees perceptions of leadership. They must also ensure that environmental issues are considered when choosing the best management style. However, appreciating the differences in leadership styles is not sufficient to be an effectual leader, as the necessary insight also varies with the environment. Silverthorne (2005) states that an effectual leader knows which leadership style to employ and when to employ it. There are four contrasting leadership styles: active or involved, supportive, participative and attainment-oriented. Active leaders tell subordinates what is required and put into effect individual systems to direct them; the supportive leader creates a friendly environment and is responsive to her subordinates needs; the participative leader engages them in the decision-making process; and the achievement-oriented leader applies high standards to the decision-making process and appears confident that subordinates will reach them. Silverthorne (2005) argues that an effective leaders choice of leadership style is based on the context of the task and the needs of the subordinates. iiii. Communication Silverthorne (2005) also suggests that one way to achieve better communication between individuals with different competitive backgrounds is to apply TNA to managers on how to work in a competitive environment. He proposes four ways of reducing cross-environment communication problems. First, managers should focus on differences in communication styles. Understanding that employees are different means describing a behaviour, rather than the individual. This will give the manager the time to understand the subject being discussed. Thirdly, the manager should attempt to understand the subject from the employees perspective. Seeing the employees point of view gives the manager an opportunity to better understand what the employee is trying to communicate. Finally, the manager must listen more openly than normal and engage in exercises to improve the communication process. 2.7 Management Training Many organizations today have training programmes for their employees but the reasons for conducting them vary widely. Some provide job orientation for new recruits; others training on new equipment for existing employees or strategic planning courses for managers. Successful managers need multi-skills training and detailed information about the organization. Training programmes for managers should cover different skills than those for employees; examples are functional, administrative, planning and leadership skills. Assessing changes in performance following training is complicated by the fact that while some of these skills can be easily observed in the short term, others will be apparent only from long-term changes in the performance of the manager, the department or the entire organisation. 2.7.1 Different types of training needs All employees should be aware of the types of management training their organization offers, because many will be planning to be line-managers in the future, so will require certain skills. McConnell (2003) lists twelve types of training which are very useful in ones current job and helpful for the future. These are now examined in turn. i. Group Training Group training involves three or more individuals who participate in a common learning activity, generally led by a group facilitator. ii. Coaching Coaching is one-on-one job training. Generally it includes demonstrations, lectures and observation of practice. iii. Mentoring This is a process in which experienced employees are assigned to assist newer employees through guidance. Sometimes it takes a formal approach; at others it is informal. It is also used to introduce employees to a companys culture and environment. iiii. Self-Paced Learning This is any learning activity in which the learner determines the speed at which the material is covered. Generally, it is an individualized form of instruction, but it can be used with groups, the speed being set either individually or by the group. V. E-Learning This is a term used to describe learning activities conducted from the users desktop via the Internet or e-mail. It is generally an individual activity. Vi. Computer-Assisted Instruction This is the delivery of training via a computer. Again it is generally individualized. It can include programmes on modelling, simulation, practice and knowledge. Vii. Distance Learning Training This describes instruction in which the teacher is geographically separated from the learner. Connection can be via satellite or phone line with the instruction delivered to a PC or to a room specially equipped with video or audio conferencing equipment. Viii. Self-Study Self-study refers to learning activities initiated and participated in by an individual. Programmed or computer-assisted instruction and reading assignments can all be self-study activities. Viiii. Simulations These are controlled and standardized representations of a job, activity or situation used as a basis for developing skills in dealing with the simulated situations. VV. Lectures These are structured oral presentations delivered for the transfer of information. VVi. Job Assignments Job assignments place an individual into an actual job, generally for a limited period of time, the primary goal being to learn all or part of the job. VVii. Job Rotation This is similar to job assignment but generally includes several assignments in a planned order or the exchange of jobs with another person. 2.7.2 Different levels of training needs The objective of a training needs analysis is the identification of the training required to meet the recognized needs. In point of fact, while these may be accepted or revised by the employees, a senior person may be assigned to decide what training is necessary. The person conducting the training or assessing the needs is not always the individual who develops or recommends the training. On the other hand, the most important step in TNA is to translate the recognized needs into objectives. Then individual objectives can be used to develop or choose a training approach at individual and organization level. Beside the types of training, McConnell (2003) specifies the levels of needs for individual and organization and the personnel who will conduct the training. i. Supervisors These are the people who manage the people being trained. ii. Human Resources These are the professionals in the human resources department. If training is a function of the HR department, it is treated separately. iii. Operating Department Employees These are the employees of the department for which an individual is to be trained. iiii. Training Department Personnel These are generally training professionals employed by the training department. Their strengths are their skills and knowledge of training techniques and procedures. The most common criticism of such people is that they lack specific job or operational knowledge. Some organizations assign their trainers to specific areas-sometimes even to temporary work in the operating departments-to overcome such weaknesses. V. Operating Department Personnel on Temporary Assignment to Training These are people who usually have excellent job knowledge but often lack training skills. Many organizations use this approach because it gives greater credibility to the training sessions, while the operating personnel on such an assignment benefit greatly from the experience and learning of training techniques. Vi. External Professionals These are usually training consultants, supplier employees, or academics. Generally, they are used when the required degree of knowledge or skill is not available within the organization. These people are usually excellent trainers, but they can be expensive to use. If they offer similar classes on a regular basis, consistency may be lost if the same external person does not conduct all classes. Vii. External Organizations Local schools and professional organizations often conduct registration programmes in general subjects. Knowing the types of training currently being used by an organization and who conducts each training type provides an initial indication of what can be done. However, in some cases the training will have to be designed and/or obtained elsewhere. 2.7.3 The Roles of HR, Trainers and Line-Managers The many roles within the training function can be analyzed and their strengths and weaknesses identified. The training function within an organization should have as part of its mission the meeting of the organizations requirements; its success at accomplishing that will be the basis for the analysis. HR people and line-managers in the training function should help the organization to improve and involve employees in training courses which could be helpful in enhancing their skills and hence their performance, so HR people and line-managers must undertake a number of tasks, summarised below. Training organization: the mission of the training function, its internal structure, and internal and external relationships. Training personnel: the selection, qualifications, and motivation of department employees. Employee training in the requirements of specific jobs or activities. Employee development training in the requirements of future jobs and broadening their abilities in their current posts. Remedial training, conducted to correct inadequate basic skills such as mathematics, reading and writing. Organizational development: improving communication and understanding throughout the organization in order to produce effective, functioning teams; establishing or changing to a desired culture; and responding to changing conditions. Internal and external communication of the training departments abilities, results, and offerings. Training facilities: the physical space and equipment allocated to conduct training. Identifying training needs: determining the training required by individual employees and the organization. Training design and development: creating, structuring, or obtaining a training programme to meet specific ob Training Needs Theories and Principles Training Needs Theories and Principles Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.1 Introduction Training has become a key focus for many organizations wishing to increase their capability, to pursue their strategy and to achieve their goals. It has a great impact not only on efficiency and organizational performance, but also on employees behaviour within the organization. Flexible training programmes may also help an organization to be more responsive to changes in its environment. Therefore, the first objective of this chapter is to explore the meaning of training and of training needs, while the second is to examine the theories dealing with these concepts. It then turns more specifically to an exploration of literature examining training needs in police organizations. 2.2 Developing Countries According to Kinsey (1988), developing country is a term used to describe countries outside the so-called Western bloc of technically advanced nations (North America, Western Europe, Japan, Australia and New Zealand) and the communist bloc. However, due to the rapid economic development in some countries (NICs) and the political and economic disturbances in the communist bloc which have resulted in dramatic changes during the last two decades, the above definition must be amended. Other terms which have been used to designate these countries include industrializing, less-developed and underdeveloped. Each tends to have certain connotations, some being more complementary than others, and some gaining popularity while others disappear. Whatever term is used, these countries are distinguished by widespread poverty. Beside this basic characteristic, Kinsey (1988) describes developing countries as having certain similarities, including low income per capita and per worker, small industria l sectors, few economies of scale, primitive technology, lack of specialization, low capital per worker, small savings per head for the bulk of the population, lack of enterprise, inadequate physical and social infrastructure, low volume of international trade per head and low efficiency. The question is: how could developing countries influence our country in management training? 2.3 Organizational Characteristics Organizations may be characterized in many different ways, depending on the reason for the classification. For the purposes of the present research, the characteristics of the Dubai Police must be examined in relation to the need for training; several authors have suggested that organization size, type of ownership and industrial sector are the main variables affecting the management of training needs (Abdalla and AlHomud, 1995). Alternatively, Wright and Geory (1992) connect training needs with management strategy, organizational structure and corporate culture. In theory, organizations can be characterized in many ways, but there is general agreement that the size of the organization is of prime importance, followed by structure, strategy (e.g. short or long term), technology use, environment and organisational culture. These are the theoretical concepts which will be examined in this study as quantifiable conditions and variables in the management of the Dubai Police. Definitions of Training Training is a very important process in any organization, allowing it to develop its employees skills and improve their performance at work. This section considers the definitions of training suggested by a number of authors. Thus, training can be described as a perfect way to learn a job or to develop employees skills. The organization of individual skills is a significant characteristic of business responsibility today, and employee motivation potentially grows in the process (Noe, 1999). The profit from employee development extends further than the concrete skills gained and their effect on an individuals efficiency (Benson, 2002). Among the many important definitions of training, the following selection is organised chronologically for convenience. Training has historical definitions; for example, Schuler and MacMillan (1984) defined it as part of human resource management (HRM) practice which has the potential to contribute to gains in competitive advantage. But this definition was incomplete because in 1984 there was a lack of information on HRM, which was still a new concept for many organizations. There was also a focus on competitive advantage among organizations, ignoring employee development and direct benefit to the organizations business. Rainbird and Heyes (1994) then defined training as employee development via engaging employees in a commitment to the organization. But this definition only involved employees in commitment and did not state how they were to be developed at work, so Heyes and Stuart (1996) refined this definition by adding that training is a development process which evolves through strategic stages. This definition indicates that development in any organization, whether short or long term, involves organizational commitment. Buckely and Caple (1995) defined training as a strategy to develop employees in skills, knowledge and attitude through a learning experience to achieve effective performance in a range of activities. Again, this definition was subject to important refinements, when Montesino (2002) pointed out that many factors may affect the effectiveness of training, including individual employees behaviour, the training programme, the local environment and the amount of support from each trainees immediate supervisor. Earlier, when Smith and Hayton (1999) defined training, they also attempted to show how certain factors impact on training needs and the decision to train employees. First, employee performance is very important and should be improved. Secondly, improvement is needed in the flexibility and adaptability of employees. Finally, training always needs new technology and investment in training needs to achieve high performance in an organization. This definition indicates the importance of high performance for training decisions, of changing the roles within the organization to increase flexibility and adaptability at work and of using new technology to achieve high performance. The authors also claim that it is a more sophisticated system of human resources management. According to Sparrow (1998), training can be managed to elicit the desired attitudes and behaviours in employees and to enhance involvement, motivation and organizational commitment. The main point of this definition is to motivate and involve employees in organizational commitment; the result could be to change employees behaviour, but these processes are controlled by the organization. Bartlett (2001) adds to this perspective by noting that there are many ways to motivate employees, the best being to improve access to training and the motivation to learn from training, as well as emphasising the perceived benefits of training. This definition shows the importance of motivating employees in training programmes and the benefit to be gained from supervisory support for training within the organization. Finally, Palo and Padhi (2003) define training as the process of developing skills, updating knowledge, changing employees behaviour and attitudes in order to improve their performance and abilities and so to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of the organization. 2.5 Training Theories 2.5.1 Training and Behaviour Theories Luthans (1998) considers that training can help organisations to change employees behaviour and that one technique of behaviour modification, encouraging desired behaviours and discouraging unwanted ones, is operant conditioning. Such behaviourist techniques were first used for the treatment of mental disorders and phobias, in psychiatric rehabilitation and in recovery from accident and trauma. Applications have since been extended to organisational settings. As developed by Fred Luthans (Luthans and Kreitner, 1985; Luthans et al., 1998), organisational behaviour modification theory has five mains steps. The first step is to identify the critical, observable and measurable performance-related behaviours to be encouraged. The second is to measure the current frequency of those behaviours, to provide a baseline against which to measure improvement. Next, the triggers or antecedents for those behaviours are identified, as are their consequences, positive, neutral and negative. The fourth step is to develop an intervention strategy to strengthen desired behaviours and weaken dysfunctional behaviours through the use of positive reinforcement (money, recognition) and corrective feedback, noting that punishment may be necessary, for example to inhibit unsafe behaviour. Finally, there is a systematic evaluation of the effectiveness of the approach in changing behaviour and improving performance over the baseline. Training can appear particularly attractive to managers, who are often in ideal positions to manipulate the reinforcement of certain employee behaviours. They also tend to find this approach attractive because it argues that what has to be changed is behaviour, and that to achieve this one needs to know very little about the complex internal workings of the people concerned. Desirable workplace behaviours include speaking courteously to customers, attending training to develop new skills and being helpful to colleagues. Undesirable ones include lateness, the production of poor quality items and being uncooperative. Training should eliminate undesired behaviour and increase the frequency of desired work behaviour. Suppose a manager wants more work assignments completed on time and fewer submitted beyond deadline. The behaviour modification options are summarized in Table 2.5.1. Luthans (1998) gives some ideas for improving performance through training, which failed to work. But Luthans argues that behaviour modification should be designed to suit organisational applications. Firstly, training should be applied to clearly identifiable and observable behaviours, such as timekeeping, carrying out checks and repairs, and the use of particular work methods. Secondly, to change organisational behaviour there should be a good strategy of rewards which are contingent on the performance of the desirable behaviours. Thirdly, training should focus on positive reinforcement, which can take a number of forms, from the praise of a superior to cash prizes, food or clothing. Finally, training can lead to sustained modification of behaviour only if positive reinforcement is continued (albeit intermittently). Training and Motivation Theories Smith and Hayton (1999) identify the following theories, which mention the role of training in organizations. i. Human capital theory This theory focuses on training in terms of economic investment. Human capital theory sees training as improving efficiency (Becker, 1964; Mincer, 1974; Strober, 1990). It is concerned with developing ideal training conditions. In the 1980s neo-human capital theory stated that organizations should train their employees consecutively to develop the flexibility and suppleness of the workforce and their receptiveness to modernisation (Bartel and Lichtenberg, 1987). ii. Human resource management theory This theory concerns the commitment of employees to the organization and views training and employee development as a means of engaging it (Rainbird, 1994; Heyes and Stuart, 1996). The early formulation of a hypothetical structure for HRM came from the Harvard Business School in the early 1980s (Beer et al., 1984). Training is seen as a strategy for managing the human resource flow of a venture which, with other human resource policies, creates commitment, competence, congruence and cost-effectiveness. iii. Training and high performance theory This is among the most widely adopted theories in organizations in Britain and the USA. It concerns the skills trajectory and proposes a distinction between those occupations which are becoming increasingly skilful and others which are deskilling over time (Gallie and White, 1993; Cappelli, 1993). Studies of high-performance employment practices and HRM strategies have resulted in the concept of human resources bundles (MacDuffie, 1995; Dyer and Reeves, 1995) which highlight the significance of implementing a number of HRM practices collectively in bundles in order to enhance performance. Training is always cited as a critical measure within the set. Training Needs Analysis Training needs analysis (TNA) is a very important stage in the methodical training cycle of design, delivery and evaluation. The purpose of TNA is to take account of unusual meanings and perspectives depending upon a variety of actors in the process, avoiding misunderstandings about prospects and what can be achieved. In addition, external trainers and consultants are able to acknowledge the importance of a challenge when they rely upon TNA which has been conducted prior to their involvement with an organization. For instance, the excellence of feedback provided by the TNA process might differ significantly, from a very detailed search to a cheap and cheerful canvassing of opinions about what is needed. In addition to the challenges noted above, there are considerations about whose benefit is served: Is the training compulsory? Does it represent the needs of individual people, their managers, the organization, etc? 2.6.1 Definition of Training Needs Analysis Williamson (1993) defines TNA as a systematic approach to determining the real training needs which exist within an organization or department. This indicates that TNA involves collecting information, for example by examining the training programmes of different organizations. A number of managers will refer to the total procedure of identifying the essential training needs, after which the next step is to analyze and address them by the best available method. The pure understanding of the term describes the last procedure simply. Although understanding can differ, it is significant that there is supposed to be constancy of practice within any organization and all employees are assumed to be completely conscious of the sense of local terminology in this field. The term training need can be difficult to define in practice, with serious consequences. On other hand, there are many authors who have defined training needs analysis as the examination or diagnostic portion of the training system. In addition, it seeks to determine whether there exists a case of supposed performance deficiency in many organizations (Camp et al., 1986). This view applies to TNA. That is to say, needs evaluation in a training needs analysis is, in truth, a diagnostic attempt, rather than an effort to identify an apparently deficient performance, because TNA does not have direct access to employees performance. Conversely, Goldstein (1986) defines TNA as an attempt to analyze and diagnose an organization, task or individual, to decide if a cure is required and if so, which is the most likely to produce the desired results. Once more, TNA is seen as a diagnostic process at an organizational level. 2.6.2 Approaches to TNA One of the earliest writers on TNA was Boydell (1976), who planned a methodical approach to training needs that had its roots in analyzing supplies using a method based on organizational objectives. For Boydell (1976, p. 4), A training need exists when the application of systematic training will serve to overcome a particular weakness. He also argues that training needs must be identified before training begins. A similar perspective is presented by Bartram and Gibson (1994, p. 3): Analyzing training needs provides a focus and direction for the investment an organization has to make in its people. Likewise, Bee and Bee (2003) assert that organizations needs are the drivers for training solutions to close any performance gap. Two supporting considerations which influence TNA are also noted by Reay (1994). Firstly, establishing who has ownership of the TNA is likely to determine whether the findings are ignored or implemented. Secondly, the person who really pays for it will point to t he real employees and this is usually senior management. On the other hand, this methodical approach to TNA tends to adopt organizational perspectives. Reid and Barrington (1999) accept these perspectives, but warn that the needs may sometimes conflict, e.g. long-term development for an individual and lack of support opportunities might contradict each other. Similarly, Sloman (1994, p. 24) notes that in the training sphere there can be a singular divergence of interests between the organization and the individual. This viewpoint is shared by Palmer (2006), who warns against assessing training needs solely from the viewpoint of the organization. Many individual employees correctly follow their own training and development agendas and strategies. There are also sound business and motivational reasons for organizations to help employees to complete their self-development needs. Learning and development are continuing and practical (Sloman, 2003). They are supposed not to have to wait for business needs and training objectives to be set before embarking on a programme. Therefore, individuals need to take more responsibility for their own learning, rather than waiting for the organization to lead them. 2.6.3 Important TNA Factors in a Changing Competitive Environment There are important factors which affect TNA in a competitive environment for any organization and which a professional approach to change requires those responsible to consider. These are now examined in turn. i. Cross-competitive environment The abolition of collective differences in vocational results can be maintained by training programmes for diverse employees in a competitive environment, which can produce admiration for individual differences in attitudes, values and behaviours, according to DNetto and Sohal (1999), who recommend certain practices in the field of training. These include identifying exact training needs which are connected to the organizations goals and objectives; assessing individual training needs to facilitate a contribution within the training programme; developing individual annual training strategies which take account of knowledge, operational and interpersonal skills, attitudes to the job and technological skills training; evaluating literacy, language and numeracy to assess the ability to undergo training; connecting training to rewards, project agreements, development procedures and pay scales; and identifying the complementary skills of employees through a review process. ii. Diversity Moore (1999) suggests that a diversity needs analysis is required for the effective integration of diverse group members. Two contrasting approaches to diversity of background are to ensure that the organization is diversity blind or to provide a diversity-negative environment. According to Moore (1999), an important starting point in an environment of diversity in TNA is awareness of different challenges faced by people from different backgrounds within the organization. Training programmes should facilitate the understanding and appreciation of actual differences between people, which can apply in communicating and using language, in learning styles, in methods of dealing with conflict and in task and relationship orientation. Developing and integrating competencies and skills in culturally diverse employees is the next step presented by Moore (1999). It should create a mechanism whereby individuals learn to avoid damaging processes due to dysfunctional interpersonal conflict, miscommunication, higher levels of stress, slower decision-making and problems with group cohesiveness. Moore (1999) states that the development of important communication skills is needed in order to achieve effective integration of competencies. These skills are the ability to consider viewpoints that may differ from ones own, to communicate, to negotiate and to face difficulties appropriately. iii. Leadership According to Silverthorne (2005), leadership plays an important role in decision-making and organizational achievement. In order to develop effectively in a cross-competitive environment, leaders must understand and control their own behaviour, as this affects employees perceptions of leadership. They must also ensure that environmental issues are considered when choosing the best management style. However, appreciating the differences in leadership styles is not sufficient to be an effectual leader, as the necessary insight also varies with the environment. Silverthorne (2005) states that an effectual leader knows which leadership style to employ and when to employ it. There are four contrasting leadership styles: active or involved, supportive, participative and attainment-oriented. Active leaders tell subordinates what is required and put into effect individual systems to direct them; the supportive leader creates a friendly environment and is responsive to her subordinates needs; the participative leader engages them in the decision-making process; and the achievement-oriented leader applies high standards to the decision-making process and appears confident that subordinates will reach them. Silverthorne (2005) argues that an effective leaders choice of leadership style is based on the context of the task and the needs of the subordinates. iiii. Communication Silverthorne (2005) also suggests that one way to achieve better communication between individuals with different competitive backgrounds is to apply TNA to managers on how to work in a competitive environment. He proposes four ways of reducing cross-environment communication problems. First, managers should focus on differences in communication styles. Understanding that employees are different means describing a behaviour, rather than the individual. This will give the manager the time to understand the subject being discussed. Thirdly, the manager should attempt to understand the subject from the employees perspective. Seeing the employees point of view gives the manager an opportunity to better understand what the employee is trying to communicate. Finally, the manager must listen more openly than normal and engage in exercises to improve the communication process. 2.7 Management Training Many organizations today have training programmes for their employees but the reasons for conducting them vary widely. Some provide job orientation for new recruits; others training on new equipment for existing employees or strategic planning courses for managers. Successful managers need multi-skills training and detailed information about the organization. Training programmes for managers should cover different skills than those for employees; examples are functional, administrative, planning and leadership skills. Assessing changes in performance following training is complicated by the fact that while some of these skills can be easily observed in the short term, others will be apparent only from long-term changes in the performance of the manager, the department or the entire organisation. 2.7.1 Different types of training needs All employees should be aware of the types of management training their organization offers, because many will be planning to be line-managers in the future, so will require certain skills. McConnell (2003) lists twelve types of training which are very useful in ones current job and helpful for the future. These are now examined in turn. i. Group Training Group training involves three or more individuals who participate in a common learning activity, generally led by a group facilitator. ii. Coaching Coaching is one-on-one job training. Generally it includes demonstrations, lectures and observation of practice. iii. Mentoring This is a process in which experienced employees are assigned to assist newer employees through guidance. Sometimes it takes a formal approach; at others it is informal. It is also used to introduce employees to a companys culture and environment. iiii. Self-Paced Learning This is any learning activity in which the learner determines the speed at which the material is covered. Generally, it is an individualized form of instruction, but it can be used with groups, the speed being set either individually or by the group. V. E-Learning This is a term used to describe learning activities conducted from the users desktop via the Internet or e-mail. It is generally an individual activity. Vi. Computer-Assisted Instruction This is the delivery of training via a computer. Again it is generally individualized. It can include programmes on modelling, simulation, practice and knowledge. Vii. Distance Learning Training This describes instruction in which the teacher is geographically separated from the learner. Connection can be via satellite or phone line with the instruction delivered to a PC or to a room specially equipped with video or audio conferencing equipment. Viii. Self-Study Self-study refers to learning activities initiated and participated in by an individual. Programmed or computer-assisted instruction and reading assignments can all be self-study activities. Viiii. Simulations These are controlled and standardized representations of a job, activity or situation used as a basis for developing skills in dealing with the simulated situations. VV. Lectures These are structured oral presentations delivered for the transfer of information. VVi. Job Assignments Job assignments place an individual into an actual job, generally for a limited period of time, the primary goal being to learn all or part of the job. VVii. Job Rotation This is similar to job assignment but generally includes several assignments in a planned order or the exchange of jobs with another person. 2.7.2 Different levels of training needs The objective of a training needs analysis is the identification of the training required to meet the recognized needs. In point of fact, while these may be accepted or revised by the employees, a senior person may be assigned to decide what training is necessary. The person conducting the training or assessing the needs is not always the individual who develops or recommends the training. On the other hand, the most important step in TNA is to translate the recognized needs into objectives. Then individual objectives can be used to develop or choose a training approach at individual and organization level. Beside the types of training, McConnell (2003) specifies the levels of needs for individual and organization and the personnel who will conduct the training. i. Supervisors These are the people who manage the people being trained. ii. Human Resources These are the professionals in the human resources department. If training is a function of the HR department, it is treated separately. iii. Operating Department Employees These are the employees of the department for which an individual is to be trained. iiii. Training Department Personnel These are generally training professionals employed by the training department. Their strengths are their skills and knowledge of training techniques and procedures. The most common criticism of such people is that they lack specific job or operational knowledge. Some organizations assign their trainers to specific areas-sometimes even to temporary work in the operating departments-to overcome such weaknesses. V. Operating Department Personnel on Temporary Assignment to Training These are people who usually have excellent job knowledge but often lack training skills. Many organizations use this approach because it gives greater credibility to the training sessions, while the operating personnel on such an assignment benefit greatly from the experience and learning of training techniques. Vi. External Professionals These are usually training consultants, supplier employees, or academics. Generally, they are used when the required degree of knowledge or skill is not available within the organization. These people are usually excellent trainers, but they can be expensive to use. If they offer similar classes on a regular basis, consistency may be lost if the same external person does not conduct all classes. Vii. External Organizations Local schools and professional organizations often conduct registration programmes in general subjects. Knowing the types of training currently being used by an organization and who conducts each training type provides an initial indication of what can be done. However, in some cases the training will have to be designed and/or obtained elsewhere. 2.7.3 The Roles of HR, Trainers and Line-Managers The many roles within the training function can be analyzed and their strengths and weaknesses identified. The training function within an organization should have as part of its mission the meeting of the organizations requirements; its success at accomplishing that will be the basis for the analysis. HR people and line-managers in the training function should help the organization to improve and involve employees in training courses which could be helpful in enhancing their skills and hence their performance, so HR people and line-managers must undertake a number of tasks, summarised below. Training organization: the mission of the training function, its internal structure, and internal and external relationships. Training personnel: the selection, qualifications, and motivation of department employees. Employee training in the requirements of specific jobs or activities. Employee development training in the requirements of future jobs and broadening their abilities in their current posts. Remedial training, conducted to correct inadequate basic skills such as mathematics, reading and writing. Organizational development: improving communication and understanding throughout the organization in order to produce effective, functioning teams; establishing or changing to a desired culture; and responding to changing conditions. Internal and external communication of the training departments abilities, results, and offerings. Training facilities: the physical space and equipment allocated to conduct training. Identifying training needs: determining the training required by individual employees and the organization. Training design and development: creating, structuring, or obtaining a training programme to meet specific ob